Whole-Brain Monosynaptic Inputs to Hypoglossal Motor Neurons in Mice

A subcortical feeding circuit linking an interoceptive node to jaw movement

The brain processes an array of stimuli, enabling the selection of appropriate behavioural responses, but the neural pathways linking interoceptive inputs to outputs for feeding are poorly understood1-3. Here we delineate a subcortical circuit in which brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF)-expressing neurons in the ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) directly connect interoceptive inputs to motor centres, controlling food consumption and jaw movements. VMHBDNF neuron inhibition increases food intake by gating motor sequences of feeding through projections to premotor areas of the jaw. When food is unavailable, VMHBDNF inhibition elicits consummatory behaviours directed at inanimate objects such as wooden blocks, and inhibition of perimesencephalic trigeminal area (pMe5) projections evokes rhythmic jaw movements. The activity of these neurons is decreased during food consumption and increases when food is in proximity but not consumed. Activity is also increased in obese animals and after leptin treatment. VMHBDNF neurons receive monosynaptic inputs from both agouti-related peptide (AgRP) and proopiomelanocortin neurons in the arcuate nucleus (Arc), and constitutive VMHBDNF activation blocks the orexigenic effect of AgRP activation. These data indicate an Arc → VMHBDNF → pMe5 circuit that senses the energy state of an animal and regulates consummatory behaviours in a state-dependent manner.

Brain-wide dynamics linking sensation to action during decision-making

Perceptual decisions rely on learned associations between sensory evidence and appropriate actions, involving the filtering and integration of relevant inputs to prepare and execute timely responses1,2. Despite the distributed nature of task-relevant representations3-10, it remains unclear how transformations between sensory input, evidence integration, motor planning and execution are orchestrated across brain areas and dimensions of neural activity. Here we addressed this question by recording brain-wide neural activity in mice learning to report changes in ambiguous visual input. After learning, evidence integration emerged across most brain areas in sparse neural populations that drive movement-preparatory activity. Visual responses evolved from transient activations in sensory areas to sustained representations in frontal-motor cortex, thalamus, basal ganglia, midbrain and cerebellum, enabling parallel evidence accumulation. In areas that accumulate evidence, shared population activity patterns encode visual evidence and movement preparation, distinct from movement-execution dynamics. Activity in movement-preparatory subspace is driven by neurons integrating evidence, which collapses at movement onset, allowing the integration process to reset. Across premotor regions, evidence-integration timescales were independent of intrinsic regional dynamics, and thus depended on task experience. In summary, learning aligns evidence accumulation to action preparation in activity dynamics across dozens of brain regions. This leads to highly distributed and parallelized sensorimotor transformations during decision-making. Our work unifies concepts from decision-making and motor control fields into a brain-wide framework for understanding how sensory evidence controls actions.

Concerning neuromodulation as treatment of neurological and neuropsychiatric disorder: Insights gained from selective targeting of the subthalamic nucleus, para-subthalamic nucleus and zona incerta in rodents

Neuromodulation such as deep brain stimulation (DBS) is advancing as a clinical intervention in several neurological and neuropsychiatric disorders, including Parkinson's disease, dystonia, tremor, and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) for which DBS is already applied to alleviate severely afflicted individuals of symptoms. Tourette syndrome and drug addiction are two additional disorders for which DBS is in trial or proposed as treatment. However, some major remaining obstacles prevent this intervention from reaching its full therapeutic potential. Side-effects have been reported, and not all DBS-treated individuals are relieved of their symptoms. One major target area for DBS electrodes is the subthalamic nucleus (STN) which plays important roles in motor, affective and associative functions, with impact on for example movement, motivation, impulsivity, compulsivity, as well as both reward and aversion. The multifunctionality of the STN is complex. Decoding the anatomical-functional organization of the STN could enhance strategic targeting in human patients. The STN is located in close proximity to zona incerta (ZI) and the para-subthalamic nucleus (pSTN). Together, the STN, pSTN and ZI form a highly heterogeneous and clinically important brain area. Rodent-based experimental studies, including opto- and chemogenetics as well as viral-genetic tract tracings, provide unique insight into complex neuronal circuitries and their impact on behavior with high spatial and temporal precision. This research field has advanced tremendously over the past few years. Here, we provide an inclusive review of current literature in the pre-clinical research fields centered around STN, pSTN and ZI in laboratory mice and rats; the three highly heterogeneous and enigmatic structures brought together in the context of relevance for treatment strategies. Specific emphasis is placed on methods of manipulation and behavioral impact.

Inaugural Review Prize 2023: The exercise hyperpnoea dilemma: A 21st-century perspective

During mild or moderate exercise, alveolar ventilation increases in direct proportion to metabolic rate, regulating arterial CO2 pressure near resting levels. Mechanisms giving rise to the hyperpnoea of exercise are unsettled despite over a century of investigation. In the past three decades, neuroscience has advanced tremendously, raising optimism that the 'exercise hyperpnoea dilemma' can finally be solved. In this review, new perspectives are offered in the hope of stimulating original ideas based on modern neuroscience methods and current understanding. We first describe the ventilatory control system and the challenge exercise places upon blood-gas regulation. We highlight relevant system properties, including feedforward, feedback and adaptive (i.e., plasticity) control of breathing. We then elaborate a seldom explored hypothesis that the exercise ventilatory response continuously adapts (learns and relearns) throughout life and ponder if the memory 'engram' encoding the feedforward exercise ventilatory stimulus could reside within the cerebellum. Our hypotheses are based on accumulating evidence supporting the cerebellum's role in motor learning and the numerous direct and indirect projections from deep cerebellar nuclei to brainstem respiratory neurons. We propose that cerebellar learning may be obligatory for the accurate and adjustable exercise hyperpnoea capable of tracking changes in life conditions/experiences, and that learning arises from specific cerebellar microcircuits that can be interrogated using powerful techniques such as optogenetics and chemogenetics. Although this review is speculative, we consider it essential to reframe our perspective if we are to solve the till-now intractable exercise hyperpnoea dilemma.

The hypoxic respiratory response of the pre-Bötzinger complex

Since the discovery of the pre-Bötzinger Complex (preBötC) as a crucial region for generating the main respiratory rhythm, our understanding of its cellular and molecular aspects has rapidly increased within the last few decades. It is now apparent that preBötC is a highly flexible neuronal network that reconfigures state-dependently to produce the most appropriate respiratory output in response to various metabolic challenges, such as hypoxia. However, the responses of the preBötC to hypoxic conditions can be varied based on the intensity, pattern, and duration of the hypoxic challenge. This review discusses the preBötC response to hypoxic challenges at the cellular and network level. Particularly, the involvement of preBötC in the classical biphasic response of the respiratory network to acute hypoxia is illuminated. Furthermore, the article discusses the functional and structural changes of preBötC neurons following intermittent and sustained hypoxic challenges. Accumulating evidence shows that the preBötC neural circuits undergo substantial changes following hypoxia and contribute to several types of the respiratory system's hypoxic ventilatory responses.

Acetylome Analyses Provide New Insights into the Effect of Chronic Intermittent Hypoxia on Hypothalamus-Dependent Endocrine Metabolism Impairment

Paediatric obstructive sleep apnoea (OSA) is a highly prevalent sleep disorder resulting in chronic intermittent hypoxia (CIH) that has been linked to metabolism and endocrine impairment. Protein acetylation, which is a frequently occurring posttranslational modification, plays pivotal roles in the regulation of hypothalamic processes. However, the effects of CIH-induced global protein acetylation on hypothalamic function and endocrine metabolism remain poorly understood. To bridge this knowledge gap, we conducted a study utilizing liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry to analyse the lysine acetylome and proteome of the hypothalamus in healthy infantile mice exposed to 3 weeks of intermittent hypoxia (as a CIH model) compared to normoxic mice (as controls). Our analysis identified and quantified 2699 Kac sites in 2453 proteins. These acetylated proteins exhibited disruptions primarily in endocrine metabolism, the citrate cycle (TCA cycle), synapse function, and circadian entrainment. Additionally, we observed significant down-regulation of proteins that are known to be involved in endocrine hormone secretion. This study aimed to elucidate the molecular mechanisms underlying CIH-induced alterations in protein acetylation within the hypothalamus. By providing valuable insights into the pathophysiological processes associated with CIH and their impacts on hypothalamic function, our findings contribute to a deeper understanding of the consequences stemming from CIH-induced changes in protein acetylation within the hypothalamus as well as its potential role in endocrine impairment.

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Obstructive Sleep Apnea in Twins

Importance

Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) is a common condition in older adult (aged >65 years) populations, but more mechanistic research is needed to individualize treatments. Previous evidence has suggested an association between OSA and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) but is limited by possible selection bias. High-quality research on this association with a careful evaluation of possible confounders may yield important mechanistic insight into both conditions and improve treatment efforts.

Objective

To investigate the association of current PTSD symptoms and PTSD diagnosis with OSA.

Design, Setting, and Participants

This cross-sectional study of twin pairs discordant for PTSD, which allows for adjustment for familial factors, was conducted using in-laboratory polysomnography from March 20, 2017, to June 3, 2019. The study sample comprised male veteran twins recruited from the Vietnam Era Twin Registry. The data analysis was performed between June 11, 2022, and January 30, 2023.

Exposure

Symptoms of PTSD in twins who served in the Vietnam War. Diagnosis of PTSD was a secondary exposure.

Main Outcomes and Measures

Obstructive sleep apnea was assessed using the apnea-hypopnea index (AHI) (≥4% oxygen saturation criterion as measured by events per hour) with overnight polysomnography. Symptoms of PTSD were assessed using the PTSD Checklist (PCL) and structured clinical interview for PTSD diagnosis.

Results

A total of 181 male twins (mean [SD] age, 68.4 [2.0] years) including 66 pairs discordant for PTSD symptoms and 15 pairs discordant for a current PTSD diagnosis were evaluated. In models examining the PCL and OSA within pairs and adjusted for body mass index (BMI) and other sociodemographic, cardiovascular, and psychiatric risk factors (including depression), each 15-point increase in PCL was associated with a 4.6 (95% CI, 0.1-9.1) events-per-hour higher AHI. Current PTSD diagnosis was associated with an adjusted 10.5 (95% CI, 5.7-15.3) events-per-hour higher AHI per sleep-hour. Comparable standardized estimates of the association of PTSD symptoms and BMI with AHI per SD increase (1.9 events per hour; 95% CI, 0.5-3.3 events per hour) were found.

Conclusions and Relevance

This cross-sectional study found an association between PTSD and sleep-disordered breathing. The findings have important public health implications and may also enhance understanding of the many factors that potentially affect OSA pathophysiology.

A Non-canonical Excitatory PV RGC-PV SC Visual Pathway for Mediating the Looming-evoked Innate Defensive Response

Parvalbumin-positive retinal ganglion cells (PV+ RGCs) are an essential subset of RGCs found in various species. However, their role in transmitting visual information remains unclear. Here, we characterized PV+ RGCs in the retina and explored the functions of the PV+ RGC-mediated visual pathway. By applying multiple viral tracing strategies, we investigated the downstream of PV+ RGCs across the whole brain. Interestingly, we found that the PV+ RGCs provided direct monosynaptic input to PV+ excitatory neurons in the superficial layers of the superior colliculus (SC). Ablation or suppression of SC-projecting PV+ RGCs abolished or severely impaired the flight response to looming visual stimuli in mice without affecting visual acuity. Furthermore, using transcriptome expression profiling of individual cells and immunofluorescence colocalization for RGCs, we found that PV+ RGCs are predominant glutamatergic neurons. Thus, our findings indicate the critical role of PV+ RGCs in an innate defensive response and suggest a non-canonical subcortical visual pathway from excitatory PV+ RGCs to PV+ SC neurons that regulates looming visual stimuli. These results provide a potential target for intervening and treating diseases related to this circuit, such as schizophrenia and autism.

A Systematic Review of Direct Outputs from the Cerebellum to the Brainstem and Diencephalon in Mammals

The cerebellum is involved in many motor, autonomic and cognitive functions, and new tasks that have a cerebellar contribution are discovered on a regular basis. Simultaneously, our insight into the functional compartmentalization of the cerebellum has markedly improved. Additionally, studies on cerebellar output pathways have seen a renaissance due to the development of viral tracing techniques. To create an overview of the current state of our understanding of cerebellar efferents, we undertook a systematic review of all studies on monosynaptic projections from the cerebellum to the brainstem and the diencephalon in mammals. This revealed that important projections from the cerebellum, to the motor nuclei, cerebral cortex, and basal ganglia, are predominantly di- or polysynaptic, rather than monosynaptic. Strikingly, most target areas receive cerebellar input from all three cerebellar nuclei, showing a convergence of cerebellar information at the output level. Overall, there appeared to be a large level of agreement between studies on different species as well as on the use of different types of neural tracers, making the emerging picture of the cerebellar output areas a solid one. Finally, we discuss how this cerebellar output network is affected by a range of diseases and syndromes, with also non-cerebellar diseases having impact on cerebellar output areas.

The pre-Bötzinger complex is necessary for the expression of inspiratory and post-inspiratory motor discharge of the vagus

The mammalian three-phase respiratory motor pattern of inspiration, post-inspiration and expiration is expressed in spinal and cranial motor nerve discharge and is generated by a distributed ponto-medullary respiratory pattern generating network. Respiratory motor pattern generation depends on a rhythmogenic kernel located within the pre-Bötzinger complex (pre-BötC). In the present study, we tested the effect of unilateral and bilateral inactivation of the pre-BötC after local microinjection of the GABAA receptor agonist isoguvacine (10 mM, 50 nl) on phrenic (PNA), hypoglossal (HNA) and vagal nerve (VNA) respiratory motor activities in an in situ perfused brainstem preparation of rats. Bilateral inactivation of the pre-BötC triggered cessation of phrenic (PNA), hypoglossal (HNA) and vagal (VNA) nerve activities for 15-20 min. Ipsilateral isoguvacine injections into the pre-BötC triggered transient (6-8 min) cessation of inspiratory and post-inspiratory VNA (p < 0.001) and suppressed inspiratory HNA by - 70 ± 15% (p < 0.01), while inspiratory PNA burst frequency increased by 46 ± 30% (p < 0.01). Taken together, these observations confirm the role of the pre-BötC as the rhythmogenic kernel of the mammalian respiratory network in situ and highlight a significant role for the pre-BötC in the transmission of vagal inspiratory and post-inspiratory pre-motor drive to the nucleus ambiguus.

Whole-brain monosynaptic inputs and outputs of leptin receptor b neurons of the nucleus tractus solitarii in mice

The nucleus tractus solitarii (NTS) is the primary central station that integrates visceral afferent information and regulates respiratory, gastrointestinal, cardiovascular, and other physiological functions. Leptin receptor b (LepRb)-expressing neurons of the NTS (NTSLepRb neurons) are implicated in central respiration regulation, respiratory facilitation, and respiratory drive enhancement. Furthermore, LepRb dysfunction is involved in obesity, insulin resistance, and sleep-disordered breathing. However, the monosynaptic inputs and outputs of NTSLepRb neurons in whole-brain mapping remain to be elucidated. Therefore, the exploration of its whole-brain connection system may provide strong support for comprehensively understanding the physiological and pathological functions of NTSLepRb neurons. In the present study, we used a cell type-specific, modified rabies virus and adeno-associated virus with the Cre-loxp system to map monosynaptic inputs and outputs of NTSLepRb neurons in LepRb-Cre mice. The results showed that NTSLepRb neurons received inputs from 48 nuclei in the whole brain from five brain regions, including especially the medulla. We found that NTSLepRb neurons received inputs from nuclei associated with respiration, such as the pre-Bötzinger complex, ambiguus nucleus, and parabrachial nucleus. Interestingly, some brain areas related to cardiovascular regulation-i.e., the ventrolateral periaqueductal gray and locus coeruleus-also sent a small number of inputs to NTSLepRb neurons. In addition, anterograde tracing results demonstrated that NTSLepRb neurons sent efferent projections to 15 nuclei, including the dorsomedial hypothalamic nucleus and arcuate hypothalamic nucleus, which are involved in regulation of energy metabolism and feeding behaviors. Quantitative statistical analysis revealed that the inputs of the whole brain to NTSLepRb neurons were significantly greater than the outputs. Our study comprehensively revealed neuronal connections of NTSLepRb neurons in the whole brain and provided a neuroanatomical basis for further research on physiological and pathological functions of NTSLepRb neurons.

Whole-brain connectivity to the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis calretinin-expressing interneurons in male mice

The bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST) is a neuropeptide-enriched brain region that modulates a wide variety of emotional behaviours and states, including stress, anxiety, reward and social interaction. The BNST consists of diverse subregions and neuronal ensembles; however, because of the high molecular heterogeneity within BNST neurons, the mechanisms through which the BNST regulates distinct emotional behaviours remain largely unclear. Prior studies have identified BNST calretinin (CR)-expressing neurons, which lack neuropeptides. Here, employing virus-based cell-type-specific retrograde and anterograde tracing systems, we mapped the whole-brain monosynaptic inputs and axonal projections of BNST CR-expressing neurons in male mice. We found that BNST CR-expressing neurons received inputs mainly from the amygdalopiriform transition area, central amygdala and hippocampus and moderately from the medial preoptic area, basolateral amygdala, paraventricular thalamus and lateral hypothalamus. Within the BNST, plenty of input neurons were primarily located in the oval and interfascicular subregions. Furthermore, numerous BNST CR-expressing neuronal boutons were observed within the BNST but not in other brain regions, thus suggesting that these neurons are a type of interneuron. These results will help further elucidate the neuronal circuits underlying the elaborate and distinct functions of the BNST.

In light of breathing: environmental light is an important modulator of breathing with clinical implications

In vertebrate animals, the automatic, rhythmic pattern of breathing is a highly regulated process that can be modulated by various behavioral and physiological factors such as metabolism, sleep-wake state, activity level, and endocrine signaling. Environmental light influences many of these modulating factors both indirectly by organizing daily and seasonal rhythms of behavior and directly through acute changes in neural signaling. While several observations from rodent and human studies suggest that environmental light affects breathing, few have systematically evaluated the underlying mechanisms and clinical relevance of environmental light on the regulation of respiratory behavior. Here, we provide new evidence and discuss the potential neurobiological mechanisms by which light modulates breathing. We conclude that environmental light should be considered, from bench to bedside, as a clinically relevant modulator of respiratory health and disease.

Oxytocin mediated excitation of hypoglossal motoneurons: implications for treating obstructive sleep apnea

Clinical studies have shown that oxytocin administered intranasally (IN) decreased the incidence and duration of obstructive events in patients with obstructive sleep apnea (OSA). Although the mechanisms by which oxytocin promotes these beneficial effects are unknown, one possible target of oxytocin could be the excitation of tongue-projecting hypoglossal motoneurons in the medulla, that exert central control of upper airway patency. This study tested the hypothesis that IN oxytocin enhances tongue muscle activity via the excitation of hypoglossal motoneurons projecting to tongue protrudor muscles (PMNs). To test this hypothesis we performed in vivo and in vitro electrophysiological studies in C57BL6/J mice as well as fluorescent imaging studies in transgenic mice in which neurons that express oxytocin receptors co-express fluorescent protein. IN oxytocin significantly increased the amplitude of inspiratory-related tongue muscle activity. This effect was abolished by severing the medial branch of hypoglossal nerve that innervates PMNs of the tongue. Oxytocin receptor-positive neurons were more prevalent in the population of PMNs than in retractor-projecting hypoglossal motoneurons (RMNs). Oxytocin administration increased action potential firing in PMNs, but had no significant effect on firing activity in RMNs. In conclusion, IN oxytocin stimulates respiratory-relating tongue muscle activity likely acting on central hypoglossal motoneurons that provide tongue protrusion and upper airway opening. This mechanism may play a role in oxytocin-induced reductions in upper airway obstructions in patients with OSA.

Inhibitory Synaptic Influences on Developmental Motor Disorders

During development, GABA and glycine play major trophic and synaptic roles in the establishment of the neuromotor system. In this review, we summarise the formation, function and maturation of GABAergic and glycinergic synapses within neuromotor circuits during development. We take special care to discuss the differences in limb and respiratory neuromotor control. We then investigate the influences that GABAergic and glycinergic neurotransmission has on two major developmental neuromotor disorders: Rett syndrome and spastic cerebral palsy. We present these two syndromes in order to contrast the approaches to disease mechanism and therapy. While both conditions have motor dysfunctions at their core, one condition Rett syndrome, despite having myriad symptoms, has scientists focused on the breathing abnormalities and their alleviation-to great clinical advances. By contrast, cerebral palsy remains a scientific quagmire or poor definitions, no widely adopted model and a lack of therapeutic focus. We conclude that the sheer abundance of diversity of inhibitory neurotransmitter targets should provide hope for intractable conditions, particularly those that exhibit broad spectra of dysfunction-such as spastic cerebral palsy and Rett syndrome.

The integrated brain network that controls respiration

Respiration is a brain function on which our lives essentially depend. Control of respiration ensures that the frequency and depth of breathing adapt continuously to metabolic needs. In addition, the respiratory control network of the brain has to organize muscular synergies that integrate ventilation with posture and body movement. Finally, respiration is coupled to cardiovascular function and emotion. Here, we argue that the brain can handle this all by integrating a brainstem central pattern generator circuit in a larger network that also comprises the cerebellum. Although currently not generally recognized as a respiratory control center, the cerebellum is well known for its coordinating and modulating role in motor behavior, as well as for its role in the autonomic nervous system. In this review, we discuss the role of brain regions involved in the control of respiration, and their anatomical and functional interactions. We discuss how sensory feedback can result in adaptation of respiration, and how these mechanisms can be compromised by various neurological and psychological disorders. Finally, we demonstrate how the respiratory pattern generators are part of a larger and integrated network of respiratory brain regions.

A cluster of mesopontine GABAergic neurons suppresses REM sleep and curbs cataplexy

Physiological rapid eye movement (REM) sleep termination is vital for initiating non-REM (NREM) sleep or arousal, whereas the suppression of excessive REM sleep is promising in treating narcolepsy. However, the neuronal mechanisms controlling REM sleep termination and keeping sleep continuation remain largely unknown. Here, we reveal a key brainstem region of GABAergic neurons in the control of both physiological REM sleep and cataplexy. Using fiber photometry and optic tetrode recording, we characterized the dorsal part of the deep mesencephalic nucleus (dDpMe) GABAergic neurons as REM relatively inactive and two different firing patterns under spontaneous sleep–wake cycles. Next, we investigated the roles of dDpMe GABAergic neuronal circuits in brain state regulation using optogenetics, RNA interference technology, and celltype-specific lesion. Physiologically, dDpMe GABAergic neurons causally suppressed REM sleep and promoted NREM sleep through the sublaterodorsal nucleus and lateral hypothalamus. In-depth studies of neural circuits revealed that sublaterodorsal nucleus glutamatergic neurons were essential for REM sleep termination by dDpMe GABAergic neurons. In addition, dDpMe GABAergic neurons efficiently suppressed cataplexy in a rodent model. Our results demonstrated that dDpMe GABAergic neurons controlled REM sleep termination along with REM/NREM transitions and represented a novel potential target to treat narcolepsy.

Role of the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus in sleep–wake regulation

The paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus (PVH) acts as a cohesive functional unit that regulates neuroendocrine and autonomic function, complex behavior, and negative emotions after stress. However, how the PVH integrates arousal with these biological functions has only recently been explored. Clinical reports, combined with neurotoxic lesioning, immunochemistry, neuronal activity recordings, and the polysomnographic analyses of genetically modified animals, have revealed that the PVH is important for the control of wakefulness. Here, we review emerging anatomical and neural mechanisms for sleep–wake regulation in the PVH to support its essential role in the promotion and maintenance of wakefulness.

Whole-brain monosynaptic outputs and presynaptic inputs of GABAergic neurons in the vestibular nuclei complex of mice

GABAergic neurons in the vestibular nuclei (VN) participate in multiple vital vestibular sensory processing allowing for the maintenance and rehabilitation of vestibular functions. However, although the important role of GABA in the central vestibular system has been widely reported, the underlying neural circuits between VN GABAergic neurons and other brain functional regions remain elusive, which limits the further study of the underlying mechanism. Hence, it is necessary to elucidate neural connectivity based on outputs and inputs of GABAergic neurons in the VN. This study employed a modified rabies virus retrograde tracing vector and cre-dependent adeno-associated viruses (AAVs) anterograde tracing vector, combined with a transgenic VGAT-IRES-Cre mice, to map the inputs and outputs of VN GABAergic neurons in the whole brain. We found that 51 discrete brain regions received projections from VN GABAergic neurons in the whole brain, and there were 77 upstream nuclei innervating GABAergic neurons in the VN. These nuclei were mainly located in four brain regions, including the medulla, pons, midbrain, and cerebellum. Among them, VN GABAergic neurons established neural circuits with some functional nuclei in the whole brain, especially regulating balance maintenance, emotion control, pain processing, sleep and circadian rhythm regulation, and fluid homeostasis. Therefore, this study deepens a comprehensive understanding of the whole-brain neural connectivity of VN, providing the neuroanatomical information for further research on the neural mechanism of the co-morbidities with vestibular dysfunction.

Molecular Organization and Patterning of the Medulla Oblongata in Health and Disease

The medulla oblongata, located in the hindbrain between the pons and the spinal cord, is an important relay center for critical sensory, proprioceptive, and motoric information. It is an evolutionarily highly conserved brain region, both structural and functional, and consists of a multitude of nuclei all involved in different aspects of basic but vital functions. Understanding the functional anatomy and developmental program of this structure can help elucidate potential role(s) of the medulla in neurological disorders. Here, we have described the early molecular patterning of the medulla during murine development, from the fundamental units that structure the very early medullary region into 5 rhombomeres (r7–r11) and 13 different longitudinal progenitor domains, to the neuronal clusters derived from these progenitors that ultimately make-up the different medullary nuclei. By doing so, we developed a schematic overview that can be used to predict the cell-fate of a progenitor group, or pinpoint the progenitor domain of origin of medullary nuclei. This schematic overview can further be used to help in the explanation of medulla-related symptoms of neurodevelopmental disorders, e.g., congenital central hypoventilation syndrome, Wold–Hirschhorn syndrome, Rett syndrome, and Pitt–Hopkins syndrome. Based on the genetic defects seen in these syndromes, we can use our model to predict which medullary nuclei might be affected, which can be used to quickly direct the research into these diseases to the likely affected nuclei.

Novel ADNP Syndrome Mice Reveal Dramatic Sex-Specific Peripheral Gene Expression With Brain Synaptic and Tau Pathologies

BACKGROUND

ADNP is essential for embryonic development. As such, de novo ADNP mutations lead to an intractable autism/intellectual disability syndrome requiring investigation.

METHODS

Mimicking humans, CRISPR (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats)-Cas9 editing produced mice carrying heterozygous Adnp p.Tyr718∗ (Tyr), a paralog of the most common ADNP syndrome mutation. Phenotypic rescue was validated by treatment with the microtubule/autophagy-protective ADNP fragment NAPVSIPQ (NAP).

RESULTS

RNA sequencing of spleens, representing a peripheral biomarker source, revealed Tyr-specific sex differences (e.g., cell cycle), accentuated in females (with significant effects on antigen processing and cellular senescence) and corrected by NAP. Differentially expressed, NAP-correctable transcripts, including the autophagy and microbiome resilience-linked FOXO3, were also deregulated in human patient-derived ADNP-mutated lymphoblastoid cells. There were also Tyr sex-specific microbiota signatures. Phenotypically, Tyr mice, similar to patients with ADNP syndrome, exhibited delayed development coupled with sex-dependent gait defects. Speech acquisition delays paralleled sex-specific mouse syntax abnormalities. Anatomically, dendritic spine densities/morphologies were decreased with NAP amelioration. These findings were replicated in the Adnp^+/- mouse, including Foxo3 deregulation, required for dendritic spine formation. Grooming duration and nociception threshold (autistic traits) were significantly affected only in males. Early-onset tauopathy was accentuated in males (hippocampus and visual cortex), mimicking humans, and was paralleled by impaired visual evoked potentials and correction by acute NAP treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

Tyr mice model ADNP syndrome pathology. The newly discovered ADNP/NAP target FOXO3 controls the autophagy initiator LC3 (microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3), with known ADNP binding to LC3 augmented by NAP, protecting against tauopathy. NAP amelioration attests to specificity, with potential for drug development targeting accessible biomarkers.

Disruption of Synaptic Transmission in the Bed Nucleus of the Stria Terminalis Reduces Seizure-Induced Death in DBA/1 Mice and Alters Brainstem E/I Balance

Sudden unexpected death in epilepsy (SUDEP) is the leading cause of death in refractory epilepsy patients. Accumulating evidence from recent human studies and animal models suggests that seizure-related respiratory arrest may be important for initiating cardiorespiratory arrest and death. Prior evidence suggests that apnea onset can coincide with seizure spread to the amygdala and that stimulation of the amygdala can reliably induce apneas in epilepsy patients, potentially implicating amygdalar regions in seizure-related respiratory arrest and subsequent postictal hypoventilation and cardiorespiratory death. This study aimed to determine if an extended amygdalar structure, the dorsal bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (dBNST), is involved in seizure-induced respiratory arrest (S-IRA) and death using DBA/1 mice, a mouse strain which has audiogenic seizures (AGS) and a high incidence of postictal respiratory arrest and death. The presence of S-IRA significantly increased c-Fos expression in the dBNST of DBA/1 mice. Furthermore, disruption of synaptic output from the dBNST via viral-induced tetanus neurotoxin (TeNT) significantly improved survival following S-IRA in DBA/1 mice without affecting baseline breathing or hypercapnic (HCVR) and hypoxic ventilatory response (HVR). This disruption in the dBNST resulted in changes to the balance of excitatory/inhibitory (E/I) synaptic events in the downstream brainstem regions of the lateral parabrachial nucleus (PBN) and the periaqueductal gray (PAG). These findings suggest that the dBNST is a potential subcortical forebrain site necessary for the mediation of S-IRA, potentially through its outputs to brainstem respiratory regions.

At the heart of the interoception network: Influence of the parasubthalamic nucleus on autonomic functions and motivated behaviors

The parasubthalamic nucleus (PSTN), a small nucleus located on the lateral edge of the posterior hypothalamus, has emerged in recent years as a highly interconnected node within the network of brain regions sensing and regulating autonomic function and homeostatic needs. Furthermore, the strong integration of the PSTN with extended amygdala circuits makes it ideally positioned to serve as an interface between interoception and emotions. While PSTN neurons are mostly glutamatergic, some of them also express neuropeptides that have been associated with stress-related affective and motivational dysfunction, including substance P, corticotropin-releasing factor, and pituitary adenylate-cyclase activating polypeptide. PSTN neurons respond to food ingestion and anorectic signals, as well as to arousing and distressing stimuli. Functional manipulation of defined pathways demonstrated that the PSTN serves as a central hub in multiple physiologically relevant networks and is notably implicated in appetite suppression, conditioned taste aversion, place avoidance, impulsive action, and fear-induced thermoregulation. We also discuss the putative role of the PSTN in interoceptive dysfunction and negative urgency. This review aims to synthesize the burgeoning preclinical literature dedicated to the PSTN and to stimulate interest in further investigating its influence on physiology and behavior.

Obstructive sleep apnea

Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) is a disease that results from loss of upper airway muscle tone leading to upper airway collapse during sleep in anatomically susceptible persons, leading to recurrent periods of hypoventilation, hypoxia, and arousals from sleep. Significant clinical consequences of the disorder cover a wide spectrum and include daytime hypersomnolence, neurocognitive dysfunction, cardiovascular disease, metabolic dysfunction, respiratory failure, and pulmonary hypertension. With escalating rates of obesity a major risk factor for OSA, the public health burden from OSA and its sequalae are expected to increase, as well. In this chapter, we review the mechanisms responsible for the development of OSA and associated neurocognitive and cardiometabolic comorbidities. Emphasis is placed on the neural control of the striated muscles that control the pharyngeal passages, especially regulation of hypoglossal motoneuron activity throughout the sleep/wake cycle, the neurocognitive complications of OSA, and the therapeutic options available to treat OSA including recent pharmacotherapeutic developments.

A potential new brainstem reflex: The oculoglossal phenomenon

BACKGROUND

A synchronized involuntary movement of the tongue to the same side as voluntary movements of the eyes, termed the oculoglossal phenomenon, has been observed. A description of the hypothesized pathway of this phenomenon could guide the development of a rapid clinical evaluation of the long segment of the brainstem and help facilitate further studies to establish a new reflex, if possible. The aim of this study is to describe and propose the simple concept of this pathway/phenomenon, the oculoglossal phenomenon.

METHODS

This is an observational study. Of a newly observe brainstem phenomenon evaluated on a subject at the National Neuroscience Institute in king Fahad Medical City (KFMC), Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. After being observed incidentally in a single patient, 60 participants were tested between January and March 2020 to confirm the presence of the phenomenon. Each subject was instructed to protrude the tongue and then move their eyes horizontally to the side. If the tongue simultaneously and involuntarily moved to the same side as the eyes, the test was deemed confirmatory. A literature review was performed, and possible anatomical pathway was proposed.

RESULTS

The oculoglossal reflex was present in most (50/60, 83.3%) of the subjects. Our proposed pathway begins at the frontal cortex, followed by a projection to the paramedian pontine reticular formation, then to the contralateral medial longitudinal fasciculus and bilaterally to the hypoglossal nuclei.

CONCLUSION

An accurate description of this phenomenon could lead to additional studies and possibly establishing it as a legitimate reflex, thus conceivably adding a new tool in the neurological examination to evaluate the brainstem's integrity.

Whole-brain monosynaptic inputs and outputs of glutamatergic neurons of the vestibular nuclei complex in mice

Vestibular nuclei complex (VN) glutamatergic neurons play a critical role in the multisensory and multimodal processing. The dysfunction of VN leads to a series of vestibular concurrent symptoms, such as disequilibrium, spatial disorientation, autonomic disorders and even emotion disorders. However, the reciprocal neural connectivity in the whole brain of VN glutamatergic neurons was incompletely understood. Here, we employed a cell-type-specific, cre-dependent, modified virus vector to retrogradely and anterogradely trace VN glutamatergic neurons in the VGLUT2-IRES-Cre mouse line. We identified and analyzed statistically the afferents and efferents of VN glutamatergic neurons in the whole brain, and also reconstructed monosynaptic inputs distribution of VN glutamatergic neurons at the three-dimensional level with the combination of a fluorescence micro-optical sectioning tomography system (fMOST). We found that VN glutamatergic neurons primarily received afferents from 57 nuclei and send efferents to 59 nuclei in the whole brain, intensively located in the brainstem and cerebellum. Projections from nuclei in the cerebellum targeting VN glutamatergic neurons mainly performed the balance control - the principal function of the vestibular system. In addition, VN glutamatergic neurons sent projections to oculomotor nucleus, trochlear nucleus and abducens nucleus dominating the eye movement. Except for the maintenance of balance, VN glutamatergic neurons were also directly connected with other functional regions, such as sleep-wake state (locus coeruleus, dorsal raphe nucleus, and laterodorsal tegmental nucleus, gigantocellular reticular nucleus, lateral paragigantocellular nucleus, periaqueductal gray, subcoeruleus nucleus, parvicellular reticular nucleus, paramedian raphe nucleus), and emotional regulation (locus coeruleus and dorsal raphe nucleus). Hence, this study revealed a comprehensive whole-brain neural connectivity of VN glutamatergic neurons and provided with a neuroanatomic foundation to further study on central vestibular circuits.

A basal ganglia-like cortical-amygdalar-hypothalamic network mediates feeding behavior

The insular cortex (INS) is extensively connected to the central nucleus of the amygdala (CEA), and both regions send convergent projections into the caudal lateral hypothalamus (LHA) encompassing the parasubthalamic nucleus (PSTN). However, the organization of the network between these structures has not been clearly delineated in the literature, although there has been an upsurge in functional studies related to these structures, especially with regard to the cognitive and psychopathological control of feeding. We conducted tract-tracing experiments from the INS and observed a pathway to the PSTN region that runs parallel to the canonical hyperdirect pathway from the isocortex to the subthalamic nucleus (STN) adjacent to the PSTN. In addition, an indirect pathway with a relay in the central amygdala was also observed that is similar in its structure to the classic indirect pathway of the basal ganglia that also targets the STN. C-Fos experiments showed that the PSTN complex reacts to neophobia and sickness induced by lipopolysaccharide or cisplatin. Chemogenetic (designer receptors exclusively activated by designer drugs [DREADD]) inhibition of tachykininergic neurons (Tac1) in the PSTN revealed that this nucleus gates a stop "no-eat" signal to refrain from feeding when the animal is subjected to sickness or exposed to a previously unknown source of food. Therefore, our anatomical findings in rats and mice indicate that the INS-PSTN network is organized in a similar manner as the hyperdirect and indirect basal ganglia circuitry. Functionally, the PSTN is involved in gating feeding behavior, which is conceptually homologous to the motor no-go response of the adjacent STN.