Protective effect of stress-induced liver damage by saponin fraction from Codonopsis lanceolata

Fermented Sprouts of Codonopsis lanceolata Suppress LPS-Induced Inflammatory Responses by Inhibiting NF-κB Signaling Pathway in RAW 264.7 Macrophages and CD1 Mice

The interest in bioconversion through fermentation of sprouts produced in smart farms is increasing due to their potential health benefits. Codonopsis lanceolata (CL) is reported to alleviate inflammatory conditions, but much research is still needed to determine which types and parts of CL are most effective. This study investigated the anti-inflammatory effects of a fermented extract of CL sprouts' aerial part (F-CSA) against LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages and mice. In the screening test, F-CSA showed the most substantial anti-inflammatory effect among several samples, containing the highest total flavonoids, tannins, and polyphenols. UPLC-ESI-Q/TOF-MS and HPLC analysis revealed that F-CSA had the highest amount of luteolin among all the CL samples analyzed. F-CSA reduced the release of inflammatory cytokines and mediators such as NO and PGE₂ by inhibiting the expression levels of iNOS and COX-2 in LPS-stimulated macrophages. Further, we found that the anti-inflammatory effects of F-CSA were mediated by inhibiting the JNK/NF-κB signaling pathway. Moreover, F-CSA improved survival rates and reduced plasma levels of NO and IL-6 in CD1 mice stimulated with LPS. These findings suggest that F-CSA, which contains luteolin, can alleviate inflammation in LPS-induced RAW 264.7 cells and a CD1 mouse model by inhibiting the JNK/NF-κB signaling pathways.

UPLC-QTOF-MS-Based Metabolomics and Antioxidant Capacity of Codonopsis lanceolata from Different Geographical Origins

Codonopsis lanceolata (C. lanceolata) has been commonly utilized as a therapeutic plant in traditional medicine. In this study, we examined variations in metabolites in C. lanceolata roots grown in different regions using ultra-high performance liquid chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-QTOF-MS). Multivariate analysis showed that the metabolite profiles of plants grown in Hoengseong and Jeongseon were more similar to each other than to that of C. lanceolata grown in Jeju. Most primary metabolites were present at higher levels in C. lanceolata grown in Jeju. In contrast, C. lanceolata grown in Hoengseong and Jeongseon had high levels of secondary metabolites such as phenylpropanoids and triterpenoid saponins, respectively. In addition, the bioactive compound content and antioxidant capacity of in C. lanceolata grown in Hoengseong and Jeongseon were observed to be higher than those of C. lanceolata grown in Jeju. This study suggests that metabolomics is an effective approach to investigate the difference of metabolite profiling in C. lanceolata from different geographical origins, and is useful for evaluating its pharmacological potential.

Lancemaside A, a major triterpene saponin of Codonopsis lanceolata enhances regulation of nitric oxide synthesis via eNOS activation

Background

Many studies on the effect of saponin-rich Codonopsis lanceolata as a bioactive source for improving physical health have been performed. C. lanceolata contains triterpenoid saponins, including lancemasides. These saponins are known to be particularly involved in the regulation of blood pressure or hypertension. This study investigated whether lancemaside A (LA), a major triterpenoid saponin from C. lanceolata, regulates nitric oxide (NO) production via the activation of endothelial NO synthase (eNOS) in human umbilical vein endothelial cells.

Methods

Upon separation with petroleum ether, ethyl acetate, and n-butanol, LA was found to be abundant in the n-butanol-soluble portion. For further purification of LA, HPLC was performed to collect fraction, and LA was identified using analysis of LC/MSMS and ¹³C-NMR values. In in vitro, the effects of LA on NO release mechanism in HUVECs were investigated by Griess assay, quantitative real-time reverse-transcription PCR, and Western blotting.

Results

Our results showed that NO production was efficiently improved by treatment with LA in a dose-dependent manner. In addition, the LA treatment resulted in extensive recovery of the NO production suppressed by the eNOS inhibitor, L-NAME, compared with that in the control group. Additionally, the level of eNOS mRNA was increased by this treatment in a dose-dependent manner. These results suggested that LA is an inducer of NO synthesis via eNOS mRNA expression. Also, the study indicated that LA is involved in activating the PI3K/Akt/eNOS signaling pathway.

Conclusion

These results suggested that LA is an inducer of NO synthesis via eNOS mRNA expression. Also, the study indicated that LA is involved in activating the PI3K/Akt/eNOS signaling pathway. These findings suggest the value of using LA as a component of functional foods and natural pharmaceuticals.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12906-019-2516-6) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology and toxicology of Codonopsis: A review

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Species of the genus Codonopsis are perennial herbs mainly distributed throughout East, Southeast and Central Asia. As recorded, they have been used as traditional Chinese medicines since the Qing Dynasty, where they were claimed for strengthening the spleen and tonifying the lung, as well as nourishing blood and engendering liquid. Some species are also used as food materials in southern China and Southeast Asia, such as tea, wine, soup, plaster, and porridge.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

The review aims to assess the ethnopharmacological uses, explicit the material basis and pharmacological action, promote the safety of medical use, and suggest the future research potentials of Codonopsis.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Information on the studies of Codonopsis was collected from scientific journals, books, and reports via library and electronic data search (PubMed, Elsevier, Scopus, Google Scholar, Springer, Science Direct, Wiley, Researchgate, ACS, EMBASE, Web of Science and CNKI). Meanwhile, it was also obtained from published works of material medica, folk records, ethnopharmacological literatures, Ph.D. and Masters Dissertation. Plant taxonomy was confirmed to the database "The Plant List" (www.theplantlist.org).

RESULTS

Codonopsis has been used for medicinal purposes all around the world. Some species are also used as food materials in southern China and Southeast Asia. The chemical constituents of Codonopsis mainly are polyacetylenes, polyenes, flavonoids, lignans, alkaloids, coumarins, terpenoids, steroids, organic acids, saccharides, and so on. Extract of Codonopsis exhibit extensive pharmacological activities, including immune function regulation, hematopoiesis improvement, cardiovascular protection, neuroprotection, gastrointestinal function regulation, endocrine function regulation, cytotoxic and antibacterial effects, anti-aging and anti-oxidation, etc. Almost no obvious toxicity or side effect are observed and recorded for Codonopsis.

CONCLUSIONS

The traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology and toxicology of Codonopsis are reviewed in this paper. Species of the genus have long been used as traditional medicines and food materials, they are reported with a large number of chemical constituents with different structures, extensive pharmacological activities in immune system, blood system, digestive system, etc. and almost no toxicity. More profound studies on less popular species, pharmacodynamic material basis and pharmacological mechanism, and quality assurance are suggested to be carried out to fulfil the research on the long-term clinical use and new drug research of Codonopsis.

Protective effect of centella triterpene saponins against cyclophosphamide-induced immune and hepatic system dysfunction in rats: its possible mechanisms of action

This study was designed to investigate the protective effects of the centella triterpene saponins (EXT) on cyclophosphamide (CYP)-induced hepatotoxicity and immunosuppression in rats. The phytochemical profile of EXT was analyzed for centella saponins by using high-performance liquid chromatographic (HPLC). Therapeutic efficacy of EXT (250 mg/kg/day p.o) on hematological profile of blood, liver function markers, and cytokine profiles in CYP (10 mg/kg/day p.o)-treated rats. In addition, weights of immune organs (spleen and thymus) and histopathological changes in the liver, intestine, and spleen were also evaluated. The active principles in EXT were identified as madecassoside, asiaticoside, and asiatic acid by HPLC analysis. Upon administration of EXT, enhanced levels of glutamate pyruvate transaminase, alkaline phosphatase, and lipid peroxidation were found reduced while the levels of reduced glutathione and hematological parameters and relative weights of immune organs were restored to normal in CYP-treated rats. The hepatic mRNA level of TNF-α, which was increased during CYP administration, was significantly decreased by the EXT treatment. The decreased levels of mRNA expression of other cytokines like IFN-γ, IL-2, GM-CSF, after CYP treatment, were also found elevated upon administration of the EXT. Histopathological examination of the intestine, liver, and spleen indicated that the extract could attenuate the CYP-induced hepatic and immune organ damage. These results indicated that EXT modulated the immune and hepatic system function of rats against CYP-induced immunosuppression and hepatotoxicity by restoring the cytokine production, antioxidant system, and multiorgan injury. Thus, triterpene saponins may provide protective and/or therapeutic alternative against the immune-mediated liver diseases.

The genus Codonopsis (Campanulaceae): a review of phytochemistry, bioactivity and quality control

Codonopsis, in the family Campanulaceae, is a genus containing 42 species of dicotyledonous herbaceous perennial plants, predominantly found in Central, East and South Asia. Several Codonopsis species are widely used in traditional medicine and are considered to have multiple medicinal properties. Among the Codonopsis species, Codonopsis pilosula (Franch.) Nannf. and C. lanceolata (Sieb. et Zucc.) Benth. & Hook. f. ex Trautv. are more popular than others according to the findings, especially phytochemical and bioactive studies. Phytochemical research shows that Codonopsis species contain mainly polyacetylenes, phenylpropanoids, alkaloids, triterpenoids and polysaccharides, which contribute to multiple bioactivities. However, the mechanisms of their bioactivities need to be further elucidated. The less popular Codonopsis species remain to be studied and exploited. In addition, although a series of methods for the quality evaluation of Codonopsis species have been developed, a feasible and reliable approach to the efficacious and safe use of various Codonopsis species is still needed, with considering botanical origin, chemical constituents and bioactive effects. This review aims to provide up-to-date and comprehensive information on the phytochemistry, bioactivity and quality control of medicinal plants in the genus Codonopsis and to highlight current gaps in knowledge, which is useful for the wider development of the Codonopsis genus.

Laparoscopic treatment of hepatic cysts located in the posterosuperior segments of the liver

PURPOSE

Laparoscopy is considered the treatment of choice for hepatic cysts, especially those located in anterolateral segments (AL; segments II, III, IVb, V, and VI) because of the ease of laparoscopic access. Here, we evaluated the feasibility and safety of laparoscopic treatment of hepatic cysts in posterosuperior segments (PS; segments I, IVa, VII, and VIII).

METHODS

We retrospectively analyzed clinical data for 34 patients who underwent laparoscopic treatment of hepatic cysts between September 2004 and December 2012. Patients were divided into two groups depending on whether the main largest cyst was located in AL (n = 20) or PS (n = 14). Laparoscopic cyst unroofing was performed in 29 patients with symptomatic simple cysts. Laparoscopic resection was performed in 5 patients with suspected cystic neoplasms.

RESULTS

There were no deaths or major complications. The mean operation time was 110 minutes and the mean hospital stay was 4.4 days. The mean cyst size was not significantly different (P = 0.511) but the frequency of multiple cysts was significantly greater in group PS (P = 0.003). The predominant type of resection was unroofing in both groups (P = 0.251). The mean blood loss (P = 0.747), mean hospital stay (P = 0.812), mean operation time (P = 0.669), morbidity rate (P = 0.488), and relapse rate (P = 0.448) were not significantly different. Relapse occurred in one patient who underwent reunroofing 17 months later. The median follow-up is 62 months.

CONCLUSION

Laparoscopy is a safe procedure for hepatic cysts located in posterosuperior segments.

Hepatoprotective effect of Amomum xanthoides against dimethylnitrosamine-induced sub-chronic liver injury in a rat model

CONTEXT

Amomum xanthioides Wall. ex Baker (Zingiberaceae) is a tropical medicinal plant that is commonly utilized in the treatment of digestive system disorders in Asia for a long time.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to evaluate the hepatoprotective effect and related mechanisms of A. xanthoides.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Sub-chronic liver injury was induced by dimethylnitrosamine (DMN, 10 mg/kg, three times per week for 3 weeks, i.p.) in rats. Water extract of A. xanthoides (WAX, 50 and 100 mg/kg) was given once a day for 3 weeks.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSION

WAX (100 mg/kg) significantly attenuated the DMN-induced excessive release of alanine aminotransferase (123.6 IU/L), aspartate aminotransferase (227.9 IU/L), alkaline phosphatase (820.9 IU/L) and total bilirubin (0.50 g/dL) in serum (p < 0.01), and hydroxyproline (30.5 mg/g tissue) and malondialdehyde (MDA) (53.6 μM/g tissue) contents (p < 0.01) in liver tissue. Furthermore, WAX significantly ameliorated the depletion of total antioxidant capacity (2.54 μM/mg tissue), superoxide dismutase (0.30 U/mg tissue), glutathione (2.10 μM/mg tissue) and catalase (605.0 U/mg tissue) activities (p < 0.05 or p < 0.01) in liver tissue. Histopathological and immunohistochemical analyses indicated that WAX markedly reduced inflammation, necrosis, collagen accumulation and activation of hepatic satellite cells in the liver. Our findings demonstrated that A. xanthoides exerts favorable hepatoprotective effects via positive regulation of the antioxidative system.

Protective effect of Brazilian propolis against hepatic oxidative damage in rats with water-immersion restraint stress

In the present study we examined the protective effect of Brazilian propolis against hepatic oxidative damage in rats with water-immersion restraint stress (WIRS) in comparison with that of vitamin E (VE). Fasted rats orally received Brazilian green propolis ethanol extract (BPEE; 10, 50 or 100 mg/kg), VE (250 mg/kg) or vehicle at 30 min before the onset of WIRS. Exposure of vehicle-treated rats to 6 h of WIRS caused liver cell damage, judging from the levels of serum alanine aminotransferase and aspartate aminotransferease, increased hepatic lipid peroxide, NO(x) contents and myeloperoxidase activity, and decreased hepatic non-protein SH, ascorbic acid contents and superoxide dismutase activity. Preadministration of BPEE (50 or 100 mg/kg) or VE to the stressed rats protected against the hepatic damage and attenuated the increased hepatic lipid peroxide and NO(x) contents and myeloperoxidase activity and the decreased hepatic non-protein SH and ascorbic acid contents and superoxide dismutase activity. These protective effects of BPEE (50 mg/kg) were greater than those of BPEE (100 mg/kg) and were almost equal to those of VE. These results indicate that BPEE protects against hepatic oxidative damage in rats exposed to WIRS possibly through its antioxidant and antiinflammatory properties such as VE.

Protective effects of Radix Codonopsis on ischemia-reperfusion injury in rats after kidney transplantation

PURPOSE

Kidney ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI) after kidney transplant remains a major problem, separate from immune rejection that can lead to kidney transplant failure and graft function loss. Free radicals, disturbance of microcirculation and the inflammatory cascade appear to be the main contributors. Radix Codonopsis, a traditional Chinese drug used in vascular diseases, is an antioxidant and free radical scavenger. This study investigates the protective effect and underlying mechanisms of Radix Codonopsis extract saponins on kidney transplantation.

METHODS

Renal transplantation was performed after rat kidneys had been stored for 1 h at 4°C. Blood urea nitrogen (BUN), serum creatinine (Scr), superoxide dismutase (SOD) and malondialdehyde (MDA) were assayed; bcl-2 and bax mRNA expression was detected using RT-PCR; bcl-2 and bax protein expression was detected by immunohistochemistry (IHC). Terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase biotin-dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL) was used to detect apoptotic cells and determine the apoptosis index (AI). Analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by Dunnett's test was used when more than two groups were compared.

RESULTS

Saponin-treated animals showed increased SOD levels accompanied by decreased MDA, Scr and BUN levels (p < 0.05 vs. untreated controls); bcl-2 mRNA and protein levels were increased in transplanted kidney from treated animals, while bax mRNA and protein levels were decreased (p < 0.05 vs. untreated controls). AI was significantly decreased in transplanted kidneys from treated animals relative to untreated controls (p < 0.05 vs. untreated controls).

CONCLUSION

This study clearly demonstrates the protective effects on IRI after kidney transplantation, which may be explained by decreased lipid peroxidation and inhibition of apoptosis.

Ethyl acetate extracts of raw and steamed Codonopsis lanceolata protects against ischemic damage potentially by maintaining SOD1 and BDNF levels

We observed the neuroprotective effects of ECLs treatment on ischemic damage in the gerbil hippocampal CA1 region four days after an ischemic insult. Among the 10 ECLs, EERCL and EESCL showed significant neuroprotection: the percentage of neurons remaining after treatment with EERCL and EESCL was 72.7% and 68.4% of that seen in the sham-ischemia group, respectively. The administration of EERCL and EESCL significantly decreased the reactive gliosis of microglia compared with that seen in the vehicle-treated ischemia group. In addition, SOD1 and BDNF immunoreactivity in the EERCL- and EESCL-ischemia groups were markedly increased compared with that in the vehicle-treated ischemia group. These results suggest that the administration of EERCL and EESCL can reduce ischemic neuronal loss potentially by maintaining SOD1 and BDNF immunoreactivity in the ischemic hippocampal CA1 region.

A dimeric triterpenoid glycoside and flavonoid glycosides with free radical-scavenging activity isolated from Rubus rigidus var. camerunensis

The aerial part of Rubus rigidus var. camerunensis (Rosaceae) is used to treat respiratory and cardiovascular disorders in the Cameroonian traditional medicine. The ethanol extract exhibited more potent antioxidant activity (E(max)s of 119% and 229% activity on DPPH and β-carotene test) than aqueous extract. Bioactivity-guided fractionation of the ethanol extract based on free radical-scavenging assay (DPPH assay) afforded five flavonoid glycosides (four flavonol glycosides and an anthocyanin) and three glucosides of 19α-hydroxyursane-type triterpenoid (two monomeric and one dimeric triterpenoids). The flavonoids were identified as kaempferol 3-O-(2″-O-E-p-coumaroyl)-β-D-glucopyranoside (1), kaempferol-3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside (astragalin, 2), kaempferol-3-O-α-L-arabinofuranoside (juglanin, 3), quercetin-3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside (isoquercitrin, 4), pelargonidin-3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside (callistephin, 5). The three triterpenoids were 2α, 3β, 19α, 23-tetrahydroxyurs-12-ene-28-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl ester (nigaichigoside F(1), 6), 2α, 3β, 19α-trihydroxyurs-12-ene-23-carboxyl-28-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl ester (suavissimoside R(1), 7) as monomeric triterpenoids and coreanoside F(1) (8) as a dimeric triterpenoid. The flavonoids exhibited potent antioxidant activities (66 to 93.56% against DPPH radical) and they were also active on β-carotene test. Coreanoside F(1) exhibited a 63% antioxidant activity, meanwhile the other two triterpenoids showed a weak activity. Three important facts on structure-activity relationship were observed: Compound 8, a dimeric triterpenoid glycoside, strongly enhanced antioxidant activity of its monomers, compound 3 with 3-O-α-L-arabinofuranyl has much more potent activity than compound 2 with 3-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl, and antocyanin (5) is more potent than its corresponding flavonol glycosides.

A sensitive liquid chromatography-electrospray tandem mass spectrometric method for lancemaside A and its metabolites in plasma and a pharmacokinetic study in mice

A high-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS) method employing electrospray ionization (ESI) has been developed for simultaneous determination of lancemaside A (3-O-beta-D-glucuronopyranosyl-3beta, 16alpha-dihydroxyolean-12-en-28-oic acid 28-O-beta-D-xylopyranosyl(1-->3)-beta-D-xylopyranosyl-(1-->4)-alpha-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1-->2)-alpha-L-arabinopyranosyl ester) and its metabolites in mouse plasma. When lancemaside A (60 mg/kg) was orally administered to mice, echinocystic acid was detected in the blood. T(max) and C(max) of the echinocystic acid were 6.5+/-1.9 h and 56.7+/-29.1 ppb. Orally administered lancemaside A was metabolized to lancemaside X (3beta, 16alpha-dihydroxyolean-12-en-28-oic acid 28-O-beta-D-xylopyranosyl(1-->3)-beta-D-xylopyranosyl-(1-->4)-alpha-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1-->2)-alpha-L-arabinopyranosyl ester) by intestinal microflora in mice, which was metabolized to echinocystic acid by intestinal microflora and/or intestinal tissues. Human intestinal microflora also metabolized lancemaside A to echinocystic acid via lancemaside X. These results suggest that the metabolism by intestinal microflora may play an important role in pharmacological effects of orally administered lancemaside A.