Converting ‘trade-offs’ to ‘trade-ons’ for greatly enhanced food security in Africa: multiple environmental, economic and social benefits from ‘socially modified crops’

Understanding adaptability in the family environment in facing COVID-19: A review

Adaptation is a research field that is trending in the face of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak in various parts of the country. The ability to adapt is one way for individuals to survive in uncertain situations. This article reviews the adaptation process in a family environment focusing on finding models from various literatures on family institution adaptations and then mapping them into adaptations that families can implement during the COVID-19 pandemic. Our study showed that family resilience in dealing with changes in various areas of life was performed through family adaptations during the COVID-19 pandemic, such as: (a) the ability of family members to be more open and respect privacy when communicating during all activities at home, (b) culture and values applied in the family are the determining factors for individuals to be able to adapt to new habits, (c) the resources owned by the family determine the attitudes and ways in which the family develops its potential in dealing with limitations and negative emotions, (d) the adaptive power of men as husbands or fathers with women as wives or mothers is driven by different factors, where men are driven generally due to external factors, while women due to internal factors. Families with different environments produce different adaptability, depending on the social capital and support received by the family.

Diversity and Diversification: Ecosystem Services Derived From Underutilized Crops and Their Co-benefits for Sustainable Agricultural Landscapes and Resilient Food Systems in Africa

There are growing calls to adopt more sustainable forms of agriculture that balance the need to increase production with environmental, human health, and wellbeing concerns. Part of this conversation has included a debate on promoting and mainstreaming neglected and underutilized crop species (NUS) because they represent a more ecologically friendly type of agriculture. We conducted a systematic review to determine the ecosystem services derived from NUS and assess their potential to promote functional ecological diversity, food and nutritional security, and transition to more equitable, inclusive, sustainable and resilient agricultural landscapes and food systems in Africa. Our literature search yielded 35 articles for further analysis. The review showed that NUS provide various provisioning, regulating, cultural, and supporting ecosystem services and several environmental and health co-benefits, dietary diversity, income, sustainable livelihood outcomes, and economic empowerment, especially for women. Importantly, NUS address the three pillars of sustainable development-ecological, social, and economic. Thus, NUS may provide a sustainable, fit-for-purpose transformative ecosystem-based adaptation solution for Africa to transition to more sustainable, healthy, equitable, and resilient agricultural landscapes and food systems.

The Future of Food: Domestication and Commercialization of Indigenous Food Crops in Africa over the Third Decade (2012–2021)

This paper follows the transition from ethnobotany to a deeper scientific understanding of the food and medicinal properties of African agroforestry tree products as inputs into the start of domestication activities. It progresses on to the integration of these indigenous trees as new crops within diversified farming systems for multiple social, economic and environmental benefits. From its advent in the 1990s, the domestication of indigenous food and non-food tree species has become a global programme with a strong African focus. This review of progress in the third decade is restricted to progress in Africa, where multi-disciplinary research on over 59 species has been reported in 759 research papers in 318 science publications by scientists from over 833 research teams in 70 countries around the world (532 in Africa). The review spans 23 research topics presenting the recent research literature for tree species of high priority across the continent, as well as that in each of the four main ecological regions: the humid zone of West and Central Africa; the Sahel and North Africa; the East African highlands and drylands; and the woody savannas of Southern Africa. The main areas of growth have been the nutritional/medicinal value of non-timber forest products; the evaluation of the state of natural resources and their importance to local people; and the characterization of useful traits. However, the testing of putative cultivars; the implementation of participatory principles; the protection of traditional knowledge and intellectual property rights; and the selection of elite trees and ideotypes remain under-researched. To the probable detriment of the upscaling and impact in tropical agriculture, there has been, at the international level, a move away from decentralized, community-based tree domestication towards a laboratory-based, centralized approach. However, the rapid uptake of research by university departments and national agricultural research centres in Africa indicates a recognition of the importance of the indigenous crops for both the livelihoods of rural communities and the revitalization and enhanced outputs from agriculture in Africa, especially in West Africa. Thus, on a continental scale, there has been an uptake of research with policy relevance for the integration of indigenous trees in agroecosystems and their importance for the attainment of the UN Sustainable Development Goals. To progress this in the fourth decade, there will need to be a dedicated Centre in Africa to test and develop cultivars of indigenous crops. Finally, this review underpins a holistic approach to mitigating climate change, as well as other big global issues such as hunger, poverty and loss of wildlife habitat by reaping the benefits, or ‘profits’, from investment in the five forms of Capital, described as ‘land maxing’. However, policy and decision makers are not yet recognizing the potential for holistic and transformational adoption of these new indigenous food crop opportunities for African agriculture. Is ‘political will’ the missing sixth capital for sustainable development?

Impact of cocoa agricultural intensification on bird diversity and community composition

To meet the growing demand for chocolate, cocoa (Theobroma cacao) agriculture is expanding and intensifying. Although this threatens tropical forests, cocoa sustainability initiatives largely overlook biodiversity conservation. To inform these initiatives, we analyzed how cocoa agriculture affects bird diversity at farm and landscape scales with a meta-analysis of 23 studies. We extracted 214 Hedges' g* comparisons of bird diversity and 14 comparisons of community similarity between a forest baseline and 4 farming systems that cover an intensification gradient in landscapes with high and low forest cover, and we summarized 119 correlations between cocoa farm features and bird diversity. Bird diversity declined sharply in low shade cocoa. Cocoa with >30% canopy cover from diverse trees retained bird diversity similar to nearby primary or mature secondary forest but held a different community of birds. Diversity of endemic species, frugivores, and insectivores (agriculture avoiders) declined, whereas diversity of habitat generalists, migrants, nectarivores, and granivores (agriculture associates) increased. As forest decreased on the landscape, the difference in bird community composition between forest and cocoa also decreased, indicating agriculture associates replaced agriculture avoiders in forest patches. Our results emphasize the need to conserve forested landscapes (land sparing) and invest in mixed-shade agroforestry (land sharing) because each strategy benefits a diverse and distinct biological community.

African Lives Matter: Wild Food Plants Matter for Livelihoods, Justice, and the Environment—A Policy Brief for Agricultural Reform and New Crops

International agricultural policies to address hunger and malnutrition in the tropics and sub-tropics have typically been based on approaches to the intensification of farming systems effective in industrialised economies where the social, economic, and environmental conditions and the infrastructure are very different to those in Africa. The consequence of this short-sightedness has been that agricultural productivity, dependent on ecosystem services from natural capital, has declined in Africa due to ecological and environmental collapse. This has undermined the livelihoods of the millions of smallholder farmers living on the brink of the cash economy, leading to severe social injustice. This review summarises advances in smallholder agriculture’s sustainable intensification in the tropics and sub-tropics, leveraging the domestication and commercialisation of wild indigenous tree species that produce nutritious, marketable, and useful food and non-food products. These are grown within diversified and multifunctional farming systems together with conventional food staples and local orphan crops to reduce land degradation, pollution, water extraction, and nutrient mining while promoting services such as pollination and other ecological functions. The benefits arising from this approach simultaneously address hunger, malnutrition, poverty, social injustice, and a stagnant economy, as well as important global issues such as climate change, loss of biodiversity and environmental degradation. Addressing these issues may also reduce the risk of future pandemics of zoonotic diseases, such as COVID-19. This set of serious global issues epitomise our divided and dysfunctional world and calls out for action. Enhancing sustainable smallholder productivity using indigenous and wild foods is an important international policy and business intervention, vital for achieving the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals and the rebalancing of the global economy by restoring natural capital within new African indigenous food industries.

Food insecurity related to agricultural practices and household characteristics in rural communities of northeast Madagascar

Ending hunger and alleviating poverty are key goals for a sustainable future. Food security is a constant challenge for agrarian communities in low-income countries, especially in Madagascar. We investigated agricultural practices, household characteristics, and food security in northeast Madagascar. We tested whether agricultural practices, demographics, and socioeconomics in rural populations were related to food security. Over 70% of respondents reported times during the last three years during which food for the household was insufficient, and the most frequently reported cause was small land size (57%). The probability of food insecurity decreased with increasing vanilla yield, rice yield, and land size. There was an interaction effect between land size and household size; larger families with smaller land holdings had higher food insecurity, while larger families with larger land had lower food insecurity. Other socioeconomic and agricultural variables were not significantly related to food insecurity, including material wealth, education, crop diversity, and livestock ownership. Our results highlight the high levels of food insecurity in these communities and point to interventions that would alleviate food stress. In particular, because current crop and livestock diversity were low, agricultural diversification could improve outputs and mitigate food insecurity. Development of sustainable agricultural intensification, including improving rice and vanilla cultivation to raise yields on small land areas, would likely have positive impacts on food security and alleviating poverty. Increasing market access and off-farm income, as well as improving policies related to land tenure could also play valuable roles in mitigating challenges in food security.

Rebuilding Tree Cover in Deforested Cocoa Landscapes in Côte d’Ivoire: Factors Affecting the Choice of Species Planted

Intensive cocoa production in Côte d’Ivoire, the world’s leading cocoa producer, has grown at the expense of forest cover. To reverse this trend, the country has adopted a “zero deforestation” agricultural policy and committed to rehabilitating its forest cover through the planting of high-value tree species in cocoa landscapes using a participatory approach. However, little is known regarding the factors influencing farmers’ introduction of high-value tree species to cocoa landscapes. We tested the hypothesis that ten previously reported factors to influence agroforestry system adoption to predict the number and choice of tree species that farmers introduce to cocoa farms. We interviewed 683 households in the cocoa-producing zone of Côte d’Ivoire and counted tree species on their cocoa farms. On average, two tree species were recorded per surveyed farm. Generalized Poisson regression models revealed that, in the cocoa production area, experience in tree planting and expected benefits, including income and food, influence tree species introduction through planting or “retention” when clearing land for cocoa establishment. The age of the farmer also influenced (p = 0.017) farmers’ tree species planting on cocoa farms. Fewer tree species were introduced into current intensive cocoa-production areas than in “old cocoa-loops” and forested areas. The number of tree species introduced to cocoa farms increased with expected benefits and experience in tree planting. The number of planted tree species also increased with farmers’ age. Tree species were mostly selected for the provision of shade to cocoa, production of useful tree products (38%), and income from the sale of these products (7%). Fruit tree species were the most planted, while timber tree species were mostly spared when clearing land for cocoa production.

Traditional Agroforestry Systems and Conservation of Native Plant Diversity of Seasonally Dry Tropical Forests

Traditional agroforestry systems (TAFS), which integrate crops with wildlife, are important reservoirs of human culture and technical experiences with a high capacity for biodiversity conservation. Our study aimed to evaluate the capacity of TAFS to conserve the floristic diversity of tropical dry forests (TDF) in the Tehuacán-Cuicatlán Valley, Mexico. We compared TAFS and TDF by measuring their forest cover, floristic composition, and structure, in addition to documenting the motivations of people to maintain native vegetation in their agricultural fields. We conducted a restricted randomized sampling of perennial plant species, including nine sites of TAFS and nine of TDF to determine the alpha, beta, and gamma diversity. Furthermore, we conducted semi-structured interviews with peasants who managed the agricultural plots we studied. We also performed workshops with people of the communities where surveys were performed. Our findings show that TAFS can maintain, on average, 68% of the species (95% of them native to the region) and 53% of the abundance of individuals occurring in the adjacent TDF. TAFS harbour 30% (39 species) of plants endemic to Mexico. Total species richness of TDF and TAFS were similar, as well as the effective number of species or communities estimated for the alpha, beta, and gamma diversity, but differed in the abundance of individuals. The high species turnover recorded in TDF (72%) and TAFS (74%) has profound implications for conservation, suggesting that it would be necessary to maintain several sites in order to conserve the regional diversity of native vegetation. Material, non-material, and regulatory contributions were reported to be the reason that peasants take into account maintaining natural vegetation. TAFS associated with TDF in the region (also called “Apancles”) contain an important richness, diversity, and endemism of components of natural ecosystems, as well as provide multiple socio-ecological contributions. These systems could represent a viable alternative to reconcile biological conservation with social well-being.

Old Ways, New Ways—Scaling Up from Customary Use of Plant Products to Commercial Harvest Taking a Multifunctional, Landscape Approach

Globally, the agricultural sector is facing many challenges in response to climate change, unsustainable farming practices and human population growth. Despite advances in technology and innovation in agriculture, governments around the world are recognizing a need for transformative agricultural systems that offer solutions to the interrelated issues of food security, climate change, and conservation of environmental and cultural values. Approaches to production are needed that are holistic and multisectoral. In planning for future agricultural models, it is worth exploring indigenous agricultural heritage systems that have demonstrated success in community food security without major environmental impacts. We demonstrate how indigenous practices of customary harvest, operating in multifunctional landscapes, can be scaled up to service new markets while still maintaining natural and cultural values. We do this through a case analysis of the wild harvest of Kakadu plum fruit by Aboriginal people across the tropical savannas of northern Australia. We conclude that this system would ideally operate at a landscape scale to ensure sustainability of harvest, maintenance of important patterns and processes for landscape health, and incorporate cultural and livelihood objectives. Applied to a variety of similar native products, such a production system has potential to make a substantial contribution to niche areas of global food and livelihood security.

Genetic diversity and structure of baobab (Adansonia digitata L.) in southeastern Kenya

Baobab (Adansonia digitata L.) is an iconic tree of African savannahs. Its multipurpose character and nutritional composition of fruits and leaves offer high economic and social potential for local communities. There is an urgent need to characterize the genetic diversity of the Kenyan baobab populations in order to facilitate further conservation and domestication programmes. This study aims at documenting the genetic diversity and structure of baobab populations in southeastern Kenya. Leaf or bark samples were collected from 189 baobab trees in seven populations distributed in two geographical groups, i.e. four inland and three coastal populations. Nine microsatellite loci were used to assess genetic diversity. Overall, genetic diversity of the species was high and similarly distributed over the populations. Bayesian clustering and principal coordinate analysis congruently divided the populations into two distinct clusters, suggesting significant differences between inland and coastal populations. The genetic differentiation between coastal and inland populations suggests a limited possibility of gene flow between these populations. Further conservation and domestications studies should take into consideration thegeographical origin of trees and more attention should be paid to morphological characterization of fruits and leaves of the coastal and inland populations to understand the causes and the impact of the differentiation.

From ethnobotany to mainstream agriculture: socially modified Cinderella species capturing 'trade-ons' for 'land maxing'

Over the last 25 years, the process of domesticating culturally-important, highly-nutritious, indigenous food-tree species. Integrating these over-looked 'Cinderella' species into conventional farming systems as new crops is playing a critical role in raising the productivity of staple food crops and improving the livelihoods of poor smallholder farmers. This experience has important policy implications for the sustainability of tropical/sub-tropical agriculture, the rural economy and the global environment. A participatory domestication process has been implemented in local communities using appropriate horticultural technologies to characterize genetic variation in non-timber forest products and produce putative cultivars by the vegetative propagation of elite trees in rural resource centers. When integrated into mainstream agriculture, these new crops diversify farmers' fields and generate income. Together, these outcomes address land degradation and social deprivation-two of the main constraints to staple food production-through beneficial effects on soil fertility, agroecosystem functions, community livelihoods, local trade and employment. Thus, the cultivation of these 'socially modified crops' offers a new strategy for the sustainable intensification of tropical agriculture based on the maximization of total factor productivity with minimal environmental and social trade-offs.

Food applications of Irvingia gabonensis (Aubry-Lecomte ex. O'Rorke) Baill., the 'bush mango': A review

Irvingia gabonensis, also known as 'bush mango', is a multipurpose fruit tree, native to tropical Africa. It is a priority indigenous fruit tree in western and central Africa since its wood is used for making utensils and fruits are mostly used as food and medicine. The objective of this work is to provide an updated review of the available knowledge about physicochemical characteristics of I. gabonensis fruit in order to evaluate its potential use in the food industry. The fruit mesocarp contains various phytochemicals and ascorbic acid concentration higher than some vitamin C rich fruits, then it is consumed fresh or dried, used to produce juice and wine, or as a flavourant. I. gabonensis fruit kernel is rich in oil (63%-69% crude fat), mainly composed of myristic and lauric acids. Its triacylglycerol composition and, resultantly, melting curve and polymorphism indicate an aptitude for diverse applications, as it is solid at room temperature. Forty-one phenolic compounds were identified in the seeds and derived extracts and supplements, being ellagic acid and its derivates the most present. This review enhances our knowledge about nutritional content and health benefits of I. gabonensis whole fruit, especially its pulp and seed, evidencing the need for safer and more efficient production of value-added products.

Nutritional quality of almond, canarium, cashew and pistachio and their oil photooxidative stability

Daily consumption of nuts is recommended as a part of a healthy diet as they contain protein and are rich in beneficial fatty acids and essential nutrients. The nutritional qualities of nuts are affected by their fatty acid composition and other factors such as maturity. Oil oxidative stability is important to determine nut nutritional quality in terms of fatty acid composition over storage. Therefore, this study aimed to (a) assess the nutritional quality (photooxidative stability and nutrient composition) of almond, cashew, pistachio and canarium (a newly commercialised indigenous nut); and (b) explore differences in nutrient concentrations between immature and mature canarium nuts. A decrease in polyunsaturated fats after photooxidation in almond and pistachio was observed. Canarium oil did not change following photooxidation suggesting canarium may display a long shelf life when stored appropriately. Our study indicated that almond provided over 50% of the recommended daily intake for manganese whereas canarium intake provided 50% of the recommended daily intake for iron (for males). Pistachio was richer in potassium compared with other nuts and canarium was richer in boron, iron and zinc than other nut species. Mature canarium kernels were richer in boron, iron and zinc but contained less potassium than immature canarium. Therefore, the current study recommended to store kernels in dark to decrease oil photooxidation, and maturity of canarium kernels at the harvest time was important affecting nutrient concentrations of kernels.