1
|
Uliana DL, Lisboa JRF, Gomes FV, Grace AA. The excitatory-inhibitory balance as a target for the development of novel drugs to treat schizophrenia. Biochem Pharmacol 2024:116298. [PMID: 38782077 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2024.116298] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2024] [Revised: 05/13/2024] [Accepted: 05/16/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024]
Abstract
The intricate balance between excitation and inhibition (E/I) in the brain plays a crucial role in normative information processing. Dysfunctions in the E/I balance have been implicated in various psychiatric disorders, including schizophrenia (SCZ). In particular, abnormalities in GABAergic signaling, specifically in parvalbumin (PV)-containing interneurons, have been consistently observed in SCZ pathophysiology. PV interneuron function is vital for maintaining an ideal E/I balance, and alterations in PV interneuron-mediated inhibition contribute to circuit deficits observed in SCZ, including hippocampus hyperactivity and midbrain dopamine system overdrive. While current antipsychotic medications primarily target D2 dopamine receptors and are effective primarily in treating positive symptoms, novel therapeutic strategies aiming to restore the E/I balance could potentially mitigate not only positive symptoms but also negative symptoms and cognitive deficits. This could involve, for instance, increasing the inhibitory drive onto excitatory neurons or decreasing the putative enhanced pyramidal neuron activity due to functional loss of PV interneurons. Compounds targeting the glycine site at glutamate NMDA receptors and muscarinic acetylcholine receptors on PV interneurons that can increase PV interneuron drive, as well as drugs that increase the postsynaptic action of GABA, such as positive allosteric modulators of α5-GABA-A receptors, and decrease glutamatergic output, such as mGluR2/3 agonists, represent promising approaches. Preventive strategies aiming at E/I balance also represent a path to reduce the risk of transitioning to SCZ in high-risk individuals. Therefore, compounds with novel mechanisms targeting E/I balance provide optimism for more effective and tailored interventions in the management of SCZ.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Daniela L Uliana
- Departments of Neuroscience, Psychiatry and Psychology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Joao Roberto F Lisboa
- Department of Pharmacology, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Felipe V Gomes
- Department of Pharmacology, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Anthony A Grace
- Departments of Neuroscience, Psychiatry and Psychology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Rincón-Cortés M, Grace AA. Sex-dependent emergence of prepubertal social dysfunction and augmented dopamine activity in a neurodevelopmental rodent model relevant for schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 2023; 262:32-39. [PMID: 37922841 DOI: 10.1016/j.schres.2023.10.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2023] [Revised: 09/25/2023] [Accepted: 10/28/2023] [Indexed: 11/07/2023]
Abstract
Schizophrenia is a neurodevelopmental psychiatric disorder that often emerges in adolescence, is characterized by social dysfunction, and has an earlier onset in men. These features have been replicated in rats exposed to the mitotoxin methylazoxymethanol acetate (MAM) on gestational day (GD) 17, which as adults exhibit behavioral impairments and dopamine (DA) system changes consistent with a schizophrenia-relevant rodent model. In humans, social withdrawal is a negative symptom that often precedes disease onset and DA system dysfunction and is more pronounced in men. Children and adolescents at high-risk for schizophrenia exhibit social deficits prior to psychotic symptoms (i.e., prodromal phase), which can be used as a predictive marker for future psychopathology. Adult MAM rats also exhibit deficient social interaction, but less is known regarding the emergence of social dysfunction in this model, whether it varies by sex, and whether it is linked to disrupted DA function. To this end, we characterized the ontogeny of social and DA dysfunction in male and female MAM rats during the prepubertal period (postnatal days 33-43) and found sex-specific changes in motivated social behaviors (play, approach) and DA function. Male MAM rats exhibited reduced social approach and increased VTA DA neuron activity compared to saline-treated (SAL) males, whereas female MAM rats exhibited enhanced play behaviors compared to SAL females but no changes in social approach or VTA population activity during this period. These findings demonstrate sex differences in the emergence of social and DA deficits in the MAM model, in which females exhibit delayed emergence.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Millie Rincón-Cortés
- Departments of Neuroscience, Psychiatry and Psychology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15260, United States.
| | - Anthony A Grace
- Departments of Neuroscience, Psychiatry and Psychology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15260, United States
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Kielbinski M, Bernacka J, Zajda K, Wawrzczak-Bargieła A, Maćkowiak M, Przewlocki R, Solecki W. Acute stress modulates noradrenergic signaling in the ventral tegmental area-amygdalar circuit. J Neurochem 2023; 164:598-612. [PMID: 36161462 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.15698] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2022] [Revised: 09/09/2022] [Accepted: 09/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Noradrenergic neurotransmission is a critical mediator of stress responses. In turn, exposure to stress induces noradrenergic system adaptations, some of which are implicated in the etiology of stress-related disorders. Adrenergic receptors (ARs) in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) have been demonstrated to regulate phasic dopamine (DA) release in the forebrain, necessary for behavioral responses to conditional cues. However, the impact of stress on noradrenergic modulation of the VTA has not been previously explored. We demonstrate that ARs in the VTA regulate dopaminergic activity in the VTA-BLA (basolateral amygdala) circuit, a key system for processing stress-related stimuli; and that such control is altered by acute stress. We utilized fast-scan cyclic voltammetry to assess the effects of intra-VTA microinfusion of α1 -AR and α2 -AR antagonists (terazosin and RX-821002, respectively), on electrically evoked phasic DA release in the BLA in stress-naïve and stressed (unavoidable electric shocks - UES) anesthetized male Sprague-Dawley rats. In addition, we used western blotting to explore UES-induced alterations in AR protein level in the VTA. Intra-VTA terazosin or RX-821002 dose-dependently attenuated DA release in the BLA. Interestingly, UES decreased the effects of intra-VTA α2 -AR blockade on DA release (24 h but not 7 days after stress), while the effects of terazosin were unchanged. Despite changes in α2 -AR physiological function in the VTA, UES did not alter α2 -AR protein levels in either intracellular or membrane fractions. These findings demonstrate that NA-ergic modulation of the VTA-BLA circuit undergoes significant alterations in response to acute stress, with α2 -AR signaling indicated as a key target.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Michal Kielbinski
- Department of Neurobiology and Neuropsychology, Jagiellonian University, Institute of Applied Psychology, Krakow, Poland
| | - Joanna Bernacka
- Department of Neurobiology and Neuropsychology, Jagiellonian University, Institute of Applied Psychology, Krakow, Poland.,Department of Pharmacology, Laboratory of Pharmacology and Brain Biostructure, Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Krakow, Poland
| | - Katarzyna Zajda
- Department of Neurobiology and Neuropsychology, Jagiellonian University, Institute of Applied Psychology, Krakow, Poland
| | - Agnieszka Wawrzczak-Bargieła
- Department of Pharmacology, Laboratory of Pharmacology and Brain Biostructure, Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Krakow, Poland
| | - Marzena Maćkowiak
- Department of Pharmacology, Laboratory of Pharmacology and Brain Biostructure, Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Krakow, Poland
| | - Ryszard Przewlocki
- Department of Molecular Neuropharmacology, Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Krakow, Poland
| | - Wojciech Solecki
- Department of Neurobiology and Neuropsychology, Jagiellonian University, Institute of Applied Psychology, Krakow, Poland
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Joanna B, Michal K, Agnieszka WB, Katarzyna Z, Marzena M, Ryszard P, Wojciech S. Alpha-2A but not 2B/C noradrenergic receptors in ventral tegmental area regulate phasic dopamine release in nucleus accumbens core. Neuropharmacology 2022; 220:109258. [PMID: 36116534 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2022.109258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2022] [Revised: 09/09/2022] [Accepted: 09/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Adrenergic receptors (AR) in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) modulate local neuronal activity and, as a consequence, dopamine (DA) release in the mesolimbic forebrain. Such modulation has functional significance: intra-VTA blockade of α1-AR attenuates behavioral responses to salient environmental stimuli in rat models of drug seeking and conditioned fear as well as phasic DA release in the nucleus accumbens (NAc). In contrast, α2-AR in the VTA has been suggested to act primarily as autoreceptors, limiting local noradrenergic input. The regulation of noradrenaline efflux by α2-AR could be of clinical interest, as α2-AR agonists are proposed as promising pharmacological tools in the treatment of PTSD and substance use disorder. Thus, the aim of our study was to determine the subtype-specificity of α2-ARs in the VTA capable of modulating phasic DA release. We used fast scan cyclic voltammetry (FSCV) in anaesthetized male rats to measure DA release in the NAc after combined electrical stimulation and infusion of selected α2-AR antagonists into the VTA. Intra-VTA microinfusion of idazoxan - a non-subtype-specific α2-AR antagonist, as well as BRL-44408 - a selective α2A-AR antagonist, attenuated electrically-evoked DA in the NAc. In contrast, local administration of JP-1302 or imiloxan (α2B- and α2C-AR antagonists, respectively) had no effect. The effect of BRL-44408 on DA release was attenuated by intra-VTA DA D2 antagonist (raclopride) pre-administration. Finally, we confirmed the presence of α2A-AR protein in the VTA using western blotting. In conclusion, these data specify α2A-, but not α2B- or α2C-AR as the receptor subtype controlling NA release in the VTA.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bernacka Joanna
- Jagiellonian University, Institute of Applied Psychology, Department of Neurobiology and Neuropsychology, Łojasiewicza Str. 4, 30-348, Krakow, Poland; Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Department of Pharmacology, Laboratory of Pharmacology and Brain Biostructure, Smętna Str. 12, 31-343, Krakow, Poland
| | - Kielbinski Michal
- Jagiellonian University, Institute of Applied Psychology, Department of Neurobiology and Neuropsychology, Łojasiewicza Str. 4, 30-348, Krakow, Poland
| | - Wawrzczak-Bargieła Agnieszka
- Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Department of Pharmacology, Laboratory of Pharmacology and Brain Biostructure, Smętna Str. 12, 31-343, Krakow, Poland
| | - Zajda Katarzyna
- Jagiellonian University, Institute of Applied Psychology, Department of Neurobiology and Neuropsychology, Łojasiewicza Str. 4, 30-348, Krakow, Poland
| | - Maćkowiak Marzena
- Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Department of Pharmacology, Laboratory of Pharmacology and Brain Biostructure, Smętna Str. 12, 31-343, Krakow, Poland
| | - Przewlocki Ryszard
- Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Department of Molecular Neuropharmacology, Smętna Str. 12, 31-343, Krakow, Poland
| | - Solecki Wojciech
- Jagiellonian University, Institute of Applied Psychology, Department of Neurobiology and Neuropsychology, Łojasiewicza Str. 4, 30-348, Krakow, Poland.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Desbonnet L, Konkoth A, Laighneach A, McKernan D, Holleran L, McDonald C, Morris DW, Donohoe G, Kelly J. Dual hit mouse model to examine the long-term effects of maternal immune activation and post-weaning social isolation on schizophrenia endophenotypes. Behav Brain Res 2022; 430:113930. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2022.113930] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2021] [Revised: 04/27/2022] [Accepted: 05/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
|
6
|
Li DC, Hinton EA, Gourley SL. Persistent behavioral and neurobiological consequences of social isolation during adolescence. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2021; 118:73-82. [PMID: 34112579 PMCID: PMC8434983 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2021.05.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2021] [Revised: 04/05/2021] [Accepted: 05/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Meaningful social interactions are a fundamental human need, the lack of which can pose serious risks to an individual's physical and mental health. Across species, peer-oriented social behaviors are dramatically reshaped during adolescence, a developmental period characterized by dynamic changes in brain structure and function as individuals transition into adulthood. Thus, the experience of social isolation during this critical developmental stage may be especially pernicious, as it could permanently derail typical neurobiological processes that are necessary for establishing adaptive adult behaviors. The purpose of this review is to summarize investigations in which rodents were isolated during adolescence, then re-housed in typical social groups prior to testing, thus allowing the investigators to resolve the long-term consequences of social adversity experienced during adolescent sensitive periods, despite subsequent normalization of the social environment. Here, we discuss alterations in social, anxiety-like, cognitive, and decision-making behaviors in previously isolated adult rodents. We then explore corresponding neurobiological findings, focusing on the prefrontal cortex, including changes in synaptic densities and protein levels, white matter and oligodendrocyte function, and neuronal physiology. Made more urgent by the recent wave of social deprivation resulting from the COVID-19 pandemic, especially amongst school-aged adolescents, understanding the mechanisms by which even transient social adversity can negatively impact brain function across the lifespan is of paramount importance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dan C Li
- Medical Scientist Training Program, Emory University School of Medicine, USA; Graduate Training Program in Neuroscience, Emory University, USA; Department of Pediatrics, Children's Healthcare of Atlanta, Emory University School of Medicine, USA; Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, USA.
| | - Elizabeth A Hinton
- Graduate Training Program in Neuroscience, Emory University, USA; Department of Pediatrics, Children's Healthcare of Atlanta, Emory University School of Medicine, USA; Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, USA
| | - Shannon L Gourley
- Graduate Training Program in Neuroscience, Emory University, USA; Department of Pediatrics, Children's Healthcare of Atlanta, Emory University School of Medicine, USA; Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Bilecki W, Wawrzczak-Bargieła A, Majcher-Maślanka I, Chmelova M, Maćkowiak M. Inhibition of BET Proteins during Adolescence Affects Prefrontal Cortical Development: Relevance to Schizophrenia. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22168710. [PMID: 34445411 PMCID: PMC8395847 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22168710] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2021] [Revised: 08/06/2021] [Accepted: 08/09/2021] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: The present study investigated the role of proteins from the bromodomain and extra-terminal (BET) family in schizophrenia-like abnormalities in a neurodevelopmental model of schizophrenia induced by prenatal methylazoxymethanol (MAM) administration (MAM-E17). Methods: An inhibitor of BET proteins, JQ1, was administered during adolescence on postnatal days (P) 23–P29, and behavioural responses (sensorimotor gating, recognition memory) and prefrontal cortical (mPFC) function (long-term potentiation (LTP), molecular and proteomic analyses) studies were performed in adult males and females. Results: Deficits in sensorimotor gating and recognition memory were observed only in MAM-treated males. However, adolescent JQ1 treatment affected animals of both sexes in the control but not MAM-treated groups and reduced behavioural responses in both sexes. An electrophysiological study showed LTP impairments only in male MAM-treated animals, and JQ1 did not affect LTP in the mPFC. In contrast, MAM did not affect activity-dependent gene expression, but JQ1 altered gene expression in both sexes. A proteomic study revealed alterations in MAM-treated groups mainly in males, while JQ1 affected both sexes. Conclusions: MAM-induced schizophrenia-like abnormalities were observed only in males, while adolescent JQ1 treatment affected memory recognition and altered the molecular and proteomic landscape in the mPFC of both sexes. Thus, transient adolescent inhibition of the BET family might prompt permanent alterations in the mPFC.
Collapse
|
8
|
Bilecki W, Latusz J, Gawlińska K, Chmelova M, Maćkowiak M. Prenatal MAM treatment altered fear conditioning following social isolation: Relevance to schizophrenia. Behav Brain Res 2021; 406:113231. [PMID: 33737089 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2021.113231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2020] [Revised: 03/02/2021] [Accepted: 03/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Adolescent social isolation (SI) might change the trajectory of brain development. In the present study, we investigated the effect of short-term adolescent SI on fear memory, anxiety and protein levels in the adult medial prefrontal cortex of rats prenatally treated with methylazoxymethanol, MAM-E17 model of schizophrenia. The animals were maintained in standard housing (SH) or social isolation (P30-P40, SI) conditions. Behavioural tests (trace or delay fear conditioning, light/dark box) were performed in late adolescence and early adulthood. The results showed that MAM treatment did not alter fear memory, which was investigated with the use of either trace or delay fear conditioning, at any age, and SI decreased the fear response in adult control animals only under trace conditioning. Neither MAM nor SI influenced anxiety-related behaviour measured in the light/dark box. A proteomics study showed that both MAM and SI changed the protein levels related to synapse maturation and cytoskeletal organization, energy transfer and metabolic processes. Prenatal or adolescent environmental factors are able to change the expression of proteins that are correlated with behavioural impairments. Moreover, SI reversed some alterations in proteins induced by MAM. Thus, normally developing brains showed different responses to adolescent SI than those with altering courses of MAM administration.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wiktor Bilecki
- Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Department of Pharmacology, Laboratory of Pharmacology and Brain Biostructure, Smętna Str. 12, 31-343 Kraków, Poland
| | - Joachim Latusz
- Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Department of Pharmacology, Laboratory of Pharmacology and Brain Biostructure, Smętna Str. 12, 31-343 Kraków, Poland
| | - Kinga Gawlińska
- Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Department of Pharmacology, Laboratory of Pharmacology and Brain Biostructure, Smętna Str. 12, 31-343 Kraków, Poland
| | - Magdalena Chmelova
- Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Department of Pharmacology, Laboratory of Pharmacology and Brain Biostructure, Smętna Str. 12, 31-343 Kraków, Poland
| | - Marzena Maćkowiak
- Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Department of Pharmacology, Laboratory of Pharmacology and Brain Biostructure, Smętna Str. 12, 31-343 Kraków, Poland.
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Potasiewicz A, Holuj M, Litwa E, Gzielo K, Socha L, Popik P, Nikiforuk A. Social dysfunction in the neurodevelopmental model of schizophrenia in male and female rats: Behavioural and biochemical studies. Neuropharmacology 2020; 170:108040. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2020.108040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2019] [Revised: 02/17/2020] [Accepted: 03/04/2020] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
|
10
|
Maćkowiak M, Latusz J, Głowacka U, Bator E, Bilecki W. Adolescent social isolation affects parvalbumin expression in the medial prefrontal cortex in the MAM-E17 model of schizophrenia. Metab Brain Dis 2019; 34:341-352. [PMID: 30519836 DOI: 10.1007/s11011-018-0359-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2018] [Accepted: 11/28/2018] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Altered parvalbumin (PV) expression is observed in the prefrontal cortex of subjects with schizophrenia. Environmental context, particularly during adolescence, might regulate PV expression. In the present study, we investigated the effect of adolescent social isolation (SI) on PV expression in the medial prefrontal cortex in a neurodevelopmental model (MAM-E17) of schizophrenia. SI exposure occurred from postnatal day 30 to 40, followed by resocialization until late adolescence or early adulthood. PV mRNA and protein levels, as well as the number of PV cells, were analysed at these ages. Moreover, epigenetic regulation of PV expression by histone methylation was examined by measuring the total and PV gene-bound H3K4me3 levels. MAM only decreased levels of the PV mRNA and protein in adulthood. Decreases in total H3K4me3 levels and its level at the PV gene were also observed at this age. In contrast, in late adolescence, SI induced a decrease in the expression of the PV mRNA in the MAM group that was related to the reduction in total and PV gene-bound H3K4me3 levels. However, at this age, SI increased the levels of the PV protein in both the control and MAM groups. In adulthood, SI did not affect PV mRNA or H3K4me3 levels but decreased levels of the PV protein in both groups. Both MAM and SI failed to change the number of PV cells at any age. The results indicate that adolescent SI accelerated epigenetic impairments of PV expression in MAM-E17 rats; however, subsequent resocialization abolished this dysfunction, but failed to prevent alterations in PV protein.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marzena Maćkowiak
- Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Department of Pharmacology, Laboratory of Pharmacology and Brain Biostructure, Smętna Street 12, 31-343, Kraków, Poland.
| | - Joachim Latusz
- Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Department of Pharmacology, Laboratory of Pharmacology and Brain Biostructure, Smętna Street 12, 31-343, Kraków, Poland
| | - Urszula Głowacka
- Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Department of Pharmacology, Laboratory of Pharmacology and Brain Biostructure, Smętna Street 12, 31-343, Kraków, Poland
| | - Ewelina Bator
- Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Department of Pharmacology, Laboratory of Pharmacology and Brain Biostructure, Smętna Street 12, 31-343, Kraków, Poland
| | - Wiktor Bilecki
- Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Department of Pharmacology, Laboratory of Pharmacology and Brain Biostructure, Smętna Street 12, 31-343, Kraków, Poland
| |
Collapse
|