Motorische Leistungsfähigkeit von Kindern und Jugendlichen in Deutschland: Eine 6‑Jahres-Kohortenstudie im Rahmen des Motorik-Moduls (MoMo)

The (cognitive) future of motor control and learning

An ongoing debate exists regarding the compatibility of dynamic systems theory (DST) and symbol processing accounts (SPA), where SPA assume abstract representations and processing. Another aspect under discussion is if either one appropriately describes and explains motor control and the modification of motor skills. Both frameworks have their strengths and weaknesses. DST provides mechanistic explanations and takes system complexity and the environment into account without reference to mental entities. System behaviour is described mathematically and considered deterministic. In contrast, SPA propose that abstract content, that is, mental representations of the (own) body, and task requirements are critically important for movement control. It is argued that neither approach nor an (unaccomplished) unification of these frameworks can achieve a comprehensive understanding of motor control and learning. In this perspective article, it is argued that further effective sources of motor learning, such as emotional support and motivational guidance, have the potential to improve and preserve motor skills indirectly and should, thus, be recognised. Qualitative approaches focussing on understanding the athlete and the situation might be appropriate for applied work.

Effects of Different Types of High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT) on Endurance and Strength Parameters in Children and Adolescents

High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT) promises high training effects on aerobic fitness in children, adolescents and adults in a relatively short time. It is therefore well-established in professional training settings. HIIT methods could also be suited to Physical Education (P.E.) lessons and contribute to students’ health and fitness. Since HIIT sessions need little time and equipment, they can be efficiently implemented in P.E. However, there are few studies which have examined non-running-based HIIT programs in the school sport setting. We therefore conducted an intervention study including 121 students aged 11−15 attending a secondary school in Baden Württemberg, Germany. The effects of three different forms of HIIT training varying in duration and content (4 × 4 HIIT, 12 × 1 HIIT, CIRCUIT) were analyzed. The training was conducted twice a week over 6 weeks (10−12 sessions). Strength and endurance performances were determined in pre- and posttests prior to and after the intervention. Results verified that all three HIIT programs led to significant improvements in aerobic fitness (p < 0.001; part ŋ2 = 0.549) with no significant interaction between time x group. In contrast to the running-based HIIT sessions, CIRCUIT training also led to significant improvements in all of the measured strength parameters. Retrospectively, students were asked to assess their perception of the training intervention. The HIIT sessions were well-suited to students who considered themselves as “athletic”. Less athletic students found it difficult to reach the necessary intensity levels. The evaluation showed that endurance training conducted in P.E. lessons needs a variety of different contents in order to sufficiently motivate students. Students perceiving themselves as “unathletic” may need additional support to reach the required intensities of HIIT. Circuit training sessions using whole-body drills can be efficiently implemented in the P.E. setting and contribute to students’ health and fitness.

Längsschnittstudie zum Verlauf motorischer Fähigkeiten von Grundschulkindern in Abhängigkeit auffälliger motorischer Leistungen der Fein- und Grobmotorik

Zusammenfassung. Theoretischer Hintergrund: Die motorische Leistungsfähigkeit (MLF) spielt eine zentrale Rolle in der Kindesentwicklung. Über den Verlauf der MLF über die Grundschulzeit in Abhängigkeit auffälliger motorischer Leistungen im Vorschulalter liegen nur wenige Befunde vor. Fragestellung: Liegen unterschiedliche Entwicklungsverläufe der MLF bei Kindern mit motorisch auffälligen Leistungen in der Fein- und Grobmotorik vor? Methode: Innerhalb einer Längsschnittstudie wurden die motorischen Dimensionen Kraft, Ausdauer, Schnelligkeit, Koordination und Beweglichkeit von Grundschulkindern ( N = 424) jährlich untersucht und mittels Varianzanalyse mit Messwiederholung geprüft. Ergebnisse: Kinder, die vor Schuleintritt grob- oder feinmotorische Auffälligkeiten (9-15 %) aufwiesen, blieben in ihrer motorischen Entwicklung deutlich hinter motorisch unauffälligen Kindern zurück. Diskussion und Schlussfolgerung: In der Folge können sich erhebliche Einschränkungen für die Alltagsmotorik und das Erlernen komplexer Bewegungen ergeben. Um gleiche motorische Startbedingungen für die betroffenen Kinder herzustellen, stellt die Erweiterung der bewegungsbezogenen Förderung der MLF vor Schulbeginn einen notwendigen Ansatz dar.

An Update on Secular Trends in Physical Fitness of Children and Adolescents from 1972 to 2015: A Systematic Review

BACKGROUND

There is evidence that physical fitness of children and adolescents (particularly cardiorespiratory endurance) has declined globally over the past decades. Ever since the first reports on negative trends in physical fitness, efforts have been undertaken by for instance the World Health Organization (WHO) to promote physical activity and fitness in children and adolescents. Therefore, it is timely to re-analyze the literature to examine whether previous reports on secular declines in physical fitness are still detectable or whether they need to be updated.

OBJECTIVES

The objective of this systematic review is to provide an 'update' on secular trends in selected components of physical fitness (i.e., cardiorespiratory endurance, relative muscle strength, proxies of muscle power, speed) in children and adolescents aged 6-18 years.

DATA SOURCES

A systematic computerized literature search was conducted in the electronic databases PubMed and Web of Science to locate studies that explicitly reported secular trends in physical fitness of children and adolescents.

STUDY ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA

Studies were included in this systematic review if they examined secular trends between at least two time points across a minimum of 5 years. In addition, they had to document secular trends in any measure of cardiorespiratory endurance, relative muscle strength, proxies of muscle power or speed in apparently healthy children and adolescents aged 6-18 years.

STUDY APPRAISAL AND SYNTHESIS METHODS

The included studies were coded for the following criteria: nation, physical fitness component (cardiorespiratory endurance, relative muscle strength, proxies of muscle power, speed), chronological age, sex (boys vs. girls), and year of assessment. Scores were standardized (i.e., converted to z scores) with sample-weighted means and standard deviations, pooled across sex and year of assessment within cells defined by study, test, and children's age.

RESULTS

The original search identified 524 hits. In the end, 22 studies met the inclusion criteria for review. The observation period was between 1972 and 2015. Fifteen of the 22 studies used tests for cardiorespiratory endurance, eight for relative muscle strength, eleven for proxies of muscle power, and eight for speed. Measures of cardiorespiratory endurance exhibited a large initial increase and an equally large subsequent decrease, but the decrease appears to have reached a floor for all children between 2010 and 2015. Measures of relative muscle strength showed a general trend towards a small increase. Measures of proxies of muscle power indicated an overall small negative quadratic trend. For measures of speed, a small-to-medium increase was observed in recent years.

LIMITATIONS

Biological maturity was not considered in the analysis because biological maturity was not reported in most included studies.

CONCLUSIONS

Negative secular trends were particularly found for cardiorespiratory endurance between 1986 and 2010-12, irrespective of sex. Relative muscle strength and speed showed small increases while proxies of muscle power declined. Although the negative trend in cardiorespiratory endurance appears to have reached a floor in recent years, because of its association with markers of health, we recommend further initiatives in PA and fitness promotion for children and adolescents. More specifically, public health efforts should focus on exercise that increases cardiorespiratory endurance to prevent adverse health effects (i.e., overweight and obesity) and muscle strength to lay a foundation for motor skill learning.

Representative Percentile Curves of Physical Fitness From Early Childhood to Early Adulthood: The MoMo Study

Introduction: Monitoring of physical fitness in youth is important because physical fitness is a summative indicator of health. From a developmental and preventive perspective, physical fitness levels are relatively stable from childhood to early adulthood. Thus, it is important to monitor physical fitness on a population based level being able to intervene at early stages (1). In order to reliably assess and evaluate the physical fitness of youth, a reliable system of standard values based on representative data is required. The aim of this analysis is to report sex- and age-specific physical fitness percentile curves from childhood to early adulthood in a nationwide sample in Germany. Methods: We use data from the nationwide representative Motorik Modul (MoMo) Study in Germany (data collection wave 1: 2009-2012; age: 4-23 years; n = 3,742; 50.1% female). Physical fitness was assessed by means of the MoMo test profile covering four dimensions of physical fitness (strength, endurance, coordination, and flexibility) and including eight physical fitness items. Percentile curves were fitted using the LMS transformation method of Cole and Green. Results: Standardized age- and sex-specific physical fitness percentiles were calculated for eight items: ergometric endurance testing, standing long jump, push-ups, sit-ups, jumping side-ways, balancing backwards, static stand, and stand and reach test. The physical fitness curves differ according to gender and the fitness dimension. Physical fitness improvements with age are linear (e.g., max. strength) or curvilinear (e.g., coordination) and have their stagnation points at different times over the course of adolescence. Discussion: Our results provide for the first time sex- and age-specific physical fitness percentile curves for Germany from 4 to 17 years. Differences in curve-shapes indicating a timed and capacity-specific physical fitness development. Nationwide German physical fitness percentiles can be useful in comparing different populations (e.g., cross-country), reporting secular trends, comparing special groups, and to evaluate physical fitness interventions.

Secular Trends in Physical Fitness of Children and Adolescents: A Review of Large-Scale Epidemiological Studies Published after 2006

Physical fitness (PF) of children and adolescents is an important resource for their future health. Population-based studies, however, rarely report secular changes of PF, although monitoring of these is crucial to deriving information for adequate interventions. This review aims to report trends in PF of children and adolescents. A literature search was conducted in PubMed in July 2019. Cohort studies published in English allowing statements to be made on trends in PF by comparing youth between the ages of four and 18 years were included. The review identified 24 studies from 16 countries meeting the inclusion criteria, with an overall sample size of more than 860,000 children and adolescents. Through a standardized quality assessment tool, we classified two studies as strong, 21 as moderate, and only one as weak. We analyzed specific secular trends separately for the five different dimensions: endurance, strength, speed, flexibility, and coordination. The majority of studies report a decline of PF over time; however, a few studies report conflicting results. Performance in endurance, strength, and flexibility decreased over time, whereas there was no consistent trend reported for speed and coordination. Overall, there is no international standard on examining and reporting changes or secular trends in PF of children and adolescents, and comparability of studies is limited due to heterogeneous conditions of conducting and analyzing PF tests. Consequently, standardized and consistent international monitoring should be implemented.

Intervention Effects of a Kindergarten-Based Health Promotion Programme on Motor Abilities in Early Childhood

Background: Physical activity is positively related to motor abilities. Especially in childhood, an active lifestyle is important to support healthy motor development. The low-threshold health promotion programme "Join the Healthy Boat" in kindergartens promotes physical activity in order to also improve motor abilities. Here, effects of the programme on children's motor abilities after 1 year were investigated. Materials and Methods: The longitudinal study included 419 children (3.7 ± 0.6 years) from 58 kindergartens throughout south-west Germany (intervention: 254, control: 165). Children in the intervention group received physical activity promotion with a focus on motor ability development, led by teachers, through one kindergarten year; children in the control group followed the normal kindergarten routine. At baseline and follow-up, motor tests (3-min-run, one-leg-stand, standing long jump, sit-and-reach-test) were performed, anthropometric measures (body weight and height) were taken and a parental questionnaire was issued. Intervention effects were assessed using differential measures (follow-up - baseline) adjusted for gender, age, socioeconomic status (SES) and baseline values, with covariance analyses. Results: Children in the intervention group showed a significant improvement in endurance performance ( F ( 1 . 329 ) = 20 . 95 ,   p < 0 . 000 ,   η P 2 = 0 . 060 ) , which applies to boys ( F ( 1 , 172 ) = 13 , 66 ,   p ≤ 0 . 000 ,   η P 2 = 0 , 074 )   and girls ( F ( 1 , 152 ) = 7 , 48 ,   p ≤ 0 . 007 , η P 2 = 0 , 047 ) . No significant intervention effects on endurance performance were found for children with low baseline values, children with a low SES, and children aged 5 years, nor for any other assessed motor ability. Conclusions: The theory-based, teacher-centered intervention promoting physical activity in order to also improve motor abilities has shown a positive effect on endurance performance in kindergarten children, but no other motor ability. Future interventions should therefore be either longer, more intense and take into account children's age, initial level of performance and their SES. In addition, the influence of teachers should be considered more closely in future research.

Development of Physical Fitness among the Top 10 Boys and Girls in Sport Schools: A 10-Year Cohort Analysis

In this study, we aimed to measure the development of physical fitness (PF) of 10 different cohorts in grade 4 and 8 different cohorts in grade 7 at 18 sport schools of North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. A total of 11,451 subjects (3979 female, 7472 male) aged 8–12 from the past 10 years were assessed using the German Motor Test (DMT) in grade 4. We tested 2614 subjects (1032 girls, 1582 boys) aged 11–15 from the past eight years using the DMT in grade 7. PF talents were defined as the top 10 boys and top 10 girls of each cohort. Linear regression was calculated to assess the development of PF. The PF of all subjects remained stable in grade 4 and declined in grade 7. The PF of the top 10 boys and top 10 girls increased in both grades. The improvements were stronger in grade 7 (female: rates of change (β) = 0.80; male: β = 0.76) than in grade 4 (female: β = 0.36; male: β = 0.32). Sit-ups and push-ups showed the highest change rates. The increase in PF of the top 10 boys and girls can be interpreted as a success for sport schools. Due to the increasing number of test participants, the likelihood of finding top talent increased. However, the increase in PF in the top talents was only partly explained by an increase in the number of tested individuals.