1
|
Chen Y, Wang T, Liang F, Han J, Lou Z, Yu Y, Li J, Zhan T, Gu Y, Dong L, Jiang B, Zhang W, Wu M, Lu Y. Nicotinamide phosphoribosyltransferase prompts bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis by driving macrophage M2 polarization in mice. Theranostics 2024; 14:2794-2815. [PMID: 38773984 PMCID: PMC11103509 DOI: 10.7150/thno.94482] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2024] [Accepted: 04/17/2024] [Indexed: 05/24/2024] Open
Abstract
Rationale: Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is an irreversible, fatal interstitial lung disease lacking specific therapeutics. Nicotinamide phosphoribosyltransferase (NAMPT), the rate-limiting enzyme of the nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) salvage biosynthesis pathway and a cytokine, has been previously reported as a biomarker for lung diseases; however, the role of NAMPT in pulmonary fibrosis has not been elucidated. Methods: We identified the NAMPT level changes in pulmonary fibrosis by analyzing public RNA-Seq databases, verified in collected clinical samples and mice pulmonary fibrosis model by Western blotting, qRT-PCR, ELISA and Immunohistochemical staining. We investigated the role and mechanism of NAMPT in lung fibrosis by using pharmacological inhibition on NAMPT and Nampt transgenic mice. In vivo macrophage depletion by clodronate liposomes and reinfusion of IL-4-induced M2 bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs) from wild-type mice, combined with in vitro cell experiments, were performed to further validate the mechanism underlying NAMPT involving lung fibrosis. Results: We found that NAMPT increased in the lungs of patients with IPF and mice with bleomycin (BLM)-induced pulmonary fibrosis. NAMPT inhibitor FK866 alleviated BLM-induced pulmonary fibrosis in mice and significantly reduced NAMPT levels in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF). The lung single-cell RNA sequencing showed that NAMPT expression in monocytes/macrophages of IPF patients was much higher than in other lung cells. Knocking out NAMPT in mouse monocytes/macrophages (Namptfl/fl;Cx3cr1CreER) significantly alleviated BLM-induced pulmonary fibrosis in mice, decreased NAMPT levels in BALF, reduced the infiltration of M2 macrophages in the lungs and improved mice survival. Depleting monocytes/macrophages in Namptfl/fl;Cx3cr1CreER mice by clodronate liposomes and subsequent pulmonary reinfusion of IL-4-induced M2 BMDMs from wild-type mice, reversed the protective effect of monocyte/macrophage NAMPT-deletion on lung fibrosis. In vitro experiments confirmed that the mechanism of NAMPT engaged in pulmonary fibrosis is related to the released NAMPT by macrophages promoting M2 polarization in a non-enzyme-dependent manner by activating the STAT6 signal pathway. Conclusions: NAMPT prompts bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis by driving macrophage M2 polarization in mice. Targeting the NAMPT of monocytes/macrophages is a promising strategy for treating pulmonary fibrosis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yaling Chen
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province, China
| | - Tong Wang
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province, China
| | - Fuxiang Liang
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province, China
| | - Jia Han
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province, China
| | - Zhiling Lou
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province, China
| | - Yifan Yu
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province, China
| | - Jinsheng Li
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province, China
| | - Tianwei Zhan
- Department of Head and Neck Surgery, Zhejiang Provincial People's Hospital, People's Hospital of Hangzhou Medical College, Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province, China
| | - Yuqing Gu
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province, China
| | - Lingjun Dong
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, Shaoxing People's Hospital, Shaoxing, Zhejiang Province, China
| | - Bo Jiang
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province, China
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, The Second Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province, China
| | - Weiping Zhang
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province, China
| | - Ming Wu
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province, China
| | - Yunbi Lu
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province, China
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Wang X, Zhang S, Lv B, Chen H, Zhang W, Dong L, Bao L, Wang M, Wang Y, Mao W, Cui L, Pang Y, Wang F, Yan F, Zhang Z, Cui G. Circular RNA PTP4A2 regulates microglial polarization through STAT3 to promote neuroinflammation in ischemic stroke. CNS Neurosci Ther 2024; 30:e14512. [PMID: 37869777 PMCID: PMC11017462 DOI: 10.1111/cns.14512] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2023] [Revised: 09/18/2023] [Accepted: 10/06/2023] [Indexed: 10/24/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Microglial polarization plays a critical role in neuroinflammation and may be a potential therapeutic target for ischemic stroke. This study was to explore the role and underlying molecular mechanism of Circular RNA PTP4A2 (circPTP4A2) in microglial polarization after ischemic stroke. METHODS C57BL/6J mice underwent transient middle cerebral artery occlusion (tMCAO), while primary mouse microglia and BV2 microglial cells experienced oxygen glucose deprivation/reperfusion (OGD/R) to mimic ischemic conditions. CircPTP4A2 shRNA lentivirus and Colivelin were used to knock down circPTP4A2 and upregulate signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) phosphorylation, respectively. Microglial polarization was assessed using immunofluorescence staining and Western blot. RNA pull-down and RNA binding protein immunoprecipitation (RIP) were applied to detect the binding between circPTP4A2 and STAT3. RESULTS The levels of circPTP4A2 were significantly increased in plasma and peri-infarct cortex in tMCAO mice. CircPTP4A2 knockdown reduced infarct volume, increased cortical cerebral blood flow (CBF), and attenuated neurological deficits. It also decreased pro-inflammatory factors levels in peri-infarct cortex and plasma, and increased anti-inflammatory factors concentrations 24 h post-stroke. In addition, circPTP4A2 knockdown suppressed M1 microglial polarization and promoted M2 microglial polarization in both tMCAO mice and OGD/R-induced BV2 microglial cells. Moreover, circPTP4A2 knockdown inhibited the phosphorylation of STAT3 induced by oxygen-glucose deprivation. In contrast, increased phosphorylation of STAT3 partly counteracted the effects of circPTP4A2 knockdown. RNA pull-down and RIP assays further certified the binding between circPTP4A2 and STAT3. CONCLUSION These results revealed regulatory mechanisms of circPTP4A2 that stimulated neuroinflammation by driving STAT3-dependent microglial polarization in ischemic brain injury. CircPTP4A2 knockdown reduced cerebral ischemic injury and promoted microglial M2 polarization, which could be a novel therapeutic target for ischemic stroke.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xingzhi Wang
- Department of NeurologyThe Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical UniversityXuzhouChina
- Institute of Stroke ResearchXuzhou Medical UniversityXuzhouChina
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Brain Disease and Bioinformation, Research Center for Biochemistry and Molecular BiologyXuzhou Medical UniversityXuzhouChina
| | - Shenyang Zhang
- Department of NeurologyThe Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical UniversityXuzhouChina
- Institute of Stroke ResearchXuzhou Medical UniversityXuzhouChina
| | - Bingchen Lv
- Department of NeurologyThe Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical UniversityXuzhouChina
- Institute of Stroke ResearchXuzhou Medical UniversityXuzhouChina
| | - Hao Chen
- Department of NeurologyThe Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical UniversityXuzhouChina
- Institute of Stroke ResearchXuzhou Medical UniversityXuzhouChina
| | - Wei Zhang
- Department of NeurologyThe Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical UniversityXuzhouChina
- Institute of Stroke ResearchXuzhou Medical UniversityXuzhouChina
| | - Liguo Dong
- Department of NeurologyThe Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical UniversityXuzhouChina
- Institute of Stroke ResearchXuzhou Medical UniversityXuzhouChina
| | - Lei Bao
- Department of NeurologyThe Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical UniversityXuzhouChina
- Institute of Stroke ResearchXuzhou Medical UniversityXuzhouChina
| | - Miao Wang
- Department of GeriatricsThe Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical UniversityXuzhouChina
| | - Yan Wang
- Department of NeurologyThe Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical UniversityXuzhouChina
- Institute of Stroke ResearchXuzhou Medical UniversityXuzhouChina
| | - Wenqi Mao
- Department of NeurologyThe Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical UniversityXuzhouChina
- Institute of Stroke ResearchXuzhou Medical UniversityXuzhouChina
| | - Likun Cui
- Department of NeurologyThe Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical UniversityXuzhouChina
- Institute of Stroke ResearchXuzhou Medical UniversityXuzhouChina
| | - Ye Pang
- Department of NeurologyThe Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical UniversityXuzhouChina
- Institute of Stroke ResearchXuzhou Medical UniversityXuzhouChina
| | - Fei Wang
- Department of NeurologyThe Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical UniversityXuzhouChina
- Institute of Stroke ResearchXuzhou Medical UniversityXuzhouChina
| | - Fuling Yan
- Department of NeurologyAffiliated to ZhongDa Hospital of Southeast UniversityNanjingChina
| | - Zuohui Zhang
- Department of NeurologyThe Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical UniversityXuzhouChina
- Institute of Stroke ResearchXuzhou Medical UniversityXuzhouChina
| | - Guiyun Cui
- Department of NeurologyThe Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical UniversityXuzhouChina
- Institute of Stroke ResearchXuzhou Medical UniversityXuzhouChina
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Wen F, Gui G, Wang X, Ye L, Qin A, Zhou C, Zha X. Drug discovery targeting nicotinamide phosphoribosyltransferase (NAMPT): Updated progress and perspectives. Bioorg Med Chem 2024; 99:117595. [PMID: 38244254 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2024.117595] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2023] [Revised: 12/21/2023] [Accepted: 01/10/2024] [Indexed: 01/22/2024]
Abstract
Nicotinamide phosphoribosyltransferase (NAMPT) is a key rate-limiting enzyme in the nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) salvage pathway, primarily catalyzing the synthesis of nicotinamide mononucleotide (NMN) from nicotinamide (NAM), phosphoribosyl pyrophosphate (PRPP), and adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Metabolic diseases, aging-related diseases, inflammation, and cancers can lead to abnormal expression levels of NAMPT due to the pivotal role of NAD+ in redox metabolism, aging, the immune system, and DNA repair. In addition, NAMPT can be secreted by cells as a cytokine that binds to cell membrane receptors to regulate intracellular signaling pathways. Furthermore, NAMPT is able to reduce therapeutic efficacy by enhancing acquired resistance to chemotherapeutic agents. Recently, a few novel activators and inhibitors of NAMPT for neuroprotection and anti-tumor have been reported, respectively. However, NAMPT activators are still in preclinical studies, and only five NAMPT inhibitors have entered the clinical stage, unfortunately, three of which were terminated or withdrawn due to safety concerns. Novel drug design strategies such as proteolytic targeting chimera (PROTAC), antibody-drug conjugate (ADC), and dual-targeted inhibitors also provide new directions for the development of NAMPT inhibitors. In this perspective, we mainly discuss the structure, biological function, and role of NAMPT in diseases and the currently discovered activators and inhibitors. It is our hope that this work will provide some guidance for the future design and optimization of NAMPT activators and inhibitors.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Fei Wen
- Department of Pharmaceutical Engineering, School of Engineering, China Pharmaceutical University, 639 Longmian Avenue, Nanjing 211198, China
| | - Gang Gui
- Department of Pharmaceutical Engineering, School of Engineering, China Pharmaceutical University, 639 Longmian Avenue, Nanjing 211198, China
| | - Xiaoyu Wang
- Department of Pharmaceutical Engineering, School of Engineering, China Pharmaceutical University, 639 Longmian Avenue, Nanjing 211198, China
| | - Li Ye
- Department of Pharmaceutical Engineering, School of Engineering, China Pharmaceutical University, 639 Longmian Avenue, Nanjing 211198, China
| | - Anqi Qin
- Department of Pharmaceutical Engineering, School of Engineering, China Pharmaceutical University, 639 Longmian Avenue, Nanjing 211198, China
| | - Chen Zhou
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
| | - Xiaoming Zha
- Department of Pharmaceutical Engineering, School of Engineering, China Pharmaceutical University, 639 Longmian Avenue, Nanjing 211198, China.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Hu J, Duan H, Zou J, Ding W, Wei Z, Peng Q, Li Z, Duan R, Sun J, Zhu J. METTL3-dependent N6-methyladenosine modification is involved in berberine-mediated neuroprotection in ischemic stroke by enhancing the stability of NEAT1 in astrocytes. Aging (Albany NY) 2024; 16:299-321. [PMID: 38180752 PMCID: PMC10817396 DOI: 10.18632/aging.205369] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2023] [Accepted: 11/16/2023] [Indexed: 01/06/2024]
Abstract
Ischemic stroke (IS) is one of the principal causes of disability and death worldwide. Berberine (BBR), derived from the traditional Chinese herbal medicine Huang Lian, has been reported to inhibit the progression of stroke, but the specific mechanism whereby BBR modulates the progression of ischemic stroke remains unclear. N6-methyladenosine (m6A) modification is the most typical epigenetic modification of mRNA post-transcriptional modifications, among which METTL3 is the most common methylation transferase. During the study, the middle cerebral artery occlusion/reperfusion (MCAO/R) was established in mice, and the mice primary astrocytes and neurons induced by oxygen-glucose deprivation/reoxygenation (OGD/R) was simulated in vitro. Level of LncNEAT1, miR-377-3p was detected via RT-qPCR. The levels of Nampt and METTL3 were measured by Western blot. CCK8 and LDH assay was performed to detect cell viability. Here, we found that berberine alleviates MCAO/R-induced ischemic injury and up-regulates the expression of Nampt in astrocytes, miR-377-3p inhibits the expression of Nampt in astrocytes after OGD/R, thus promoting neuronal injury. NEAT1 binds to miR-377-3p in OGD/R astrocytes and plays a neuronal protective role as a ceRNA. METTL3 can enhance NEAT1 stability in OGD/R astrocytes by modulating m6A modification of NEAT1. Taken together, our results demonstrate that berberine exerts neuroprotective effects via the m6A methyltransferase METTL3, which regulates the NEAT1/miR-377-3p/Nampt axis in mouse astrocytes to ameliorate cerebral ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Junya Hu
- Department of Pharmacy, Nanjing First Hospital, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210006, China
- Department of Pharmacy, Nanjing First Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 210006, China
| | - Huijie Duan
- Department of Pharmacy, Nanjing First Hospital, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210006, China
- Department of Pharmacy, Nanjing First Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 210006, China
| | - Junqing Zou
- Department of Pharmacy, Nanjing First Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 210006, China
| | - Wangli Ding
- Department of Pharmacy, Nanjing First Hospital, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210006, China
- Department of Pharmacy, Nanjing First Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 210006, China
| | - Ziqiao Wei
- Department of Second Clinical Medical School, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 210000, China
| | - Qiang Peng
- Department of Neurology, Nanjing First Hospital, Nanjing 210006, China
| | - Zhongyuan Li
- Department of Neurology, Nanjing First Hospital, Nanjing 210006, China
| | - Rui Duan
- Department of Neurology, Nanjing First Hospital, Nanjing 210006, China
| | - Jianguo Sun
- Key Lab of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Junrong Zhu
- Department of Pharmacy, Nanjing First Hospital, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210006, China
- Department of Pharmacy, Nanjing First Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 210006, China
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Weng Z, Cao C, Stepicheva NA, Chen F, Foley LM, Cao S, Bhuiyan MIH, Wang Q, Wang Y, Hitchens TK, Sun D, Cao G. A Novel Needle Mouse Model of Vascular Cognitive Impairment and Dementia. J Neurosci 2023; 43:7351-7360. [PMID: 37684030 PMCID: PMC10621771 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.0282-23.2023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2023] [Revised: 07/31/2023] [Accepted: 08/20/2023] [Indexed: 09/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Bilateral common carotid artery (CCA) stenosis (BCAS) is a useful model to mimic vascular cognitive impairment and dementia (VCID). However, current BCAS models have the disadvantages of high cost and incompatibility with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scanning because of metal implantation. We have established a new low-cost VCID model that better mimics human VCID and is compatible with live-animal MRI. The right and the left CCAs were temporarily ligated to 32- and 34-gauge needles with three ligations, respectively. After needle removal, CCA blood flow, cerebral blood flow, white matter injury (WMI) and cognitive function were measured. In male mice, needle removal led to ∼49.8% and ∼28.2% blood flow recovery in the right and left CCA, respectively. This model caused persistent and long-term cerebral hypoperfusion in both hemispheres (more severe in the left hemisphere), and WMI and cognitive dysfunction in ∼90% of mice, which is more reliable compared with other models. Importantly, these pathologic changes and cognitive impairments lasted for up to 24 weeks after surgery. The survival rate over 24 weeks was 81.6%. Female mice showed similar cognitive dysfunction, but a higher survival rate (91.6%) and relatively milder white matter injury. A novel, low-cost VCID model compatible with live-animal MRI with long-term outcomes was established.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Bilateral common carotid artery (CCA) stenosis (BCAS) is an animal model mimicking carotid artery stenosis to study vascular cognitive impairment and dementia (VCID). However, current BCAS models have the disadvantages of high cost and incompatibility with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scanning due to metal implantation. We established a new asymmetric BCAS model by ligating the CCA to various needle gauges followed by an immediate needle removal. Needle removal led to moderate stenosis in the right CCA and severe stenosis in the left CCA. This needle model replicates the hallmarks of VCID well in ∼90% of mice, which is more reliable compared with other models, has ultra-low cost, and is compatible with MRI scanning in live animals. It will provide a new valuable tool and offer new insights for VCID research.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zhongfang Weng
- Department of Neurology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15260
- Geriatric Research Education and Clinical Center, Veterans Affairs Pittsburgh Healthcare System, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15240
| | - Catherine Cao
- Department of Neurology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15260
| | - Nadezda A Stepicheva
- Department of Neurology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15260
| | - Fenghua Chen
- Department of Neurology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15260
- Geriatric Research Education and Clinical Center, Veterans Affairs Pittsburgh Healthcare System, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15240
| | - Lesley M Foley
- Animal Imaging Center, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15203
| | - Sarah Cao
- School of Arts & Science, University of Washington in St Louis, St. Louis, Missouri 63130
| | | | - Qingde Wang
- Department of Surgery, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15260
| | - Yuan Wang
- Department of Neurology, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medicine University, Beijing 100053, China
| | - T Kevin Hitchens
- Animal Imaging Center, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15203
- Department of Neurobiology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213
| | - Dandan Sun
- Department of Neurology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15260
- Geriatric Research Education and Clinical Center, Veterans Affairs Pittsburgh Healthcare System, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15240
| | - Guodong Cao
- Department of Neurology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15260
- Geriatric Research Education and Clinical Center, Veterans Affairs Pittsburgh Healthcare System, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15240
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Xiong Y, Fu Y, Li Z, Zheng Y, Cui M, Zhang C, Huang XY, Jian Y, Chen BH. Laquinimod Inhibits Microglial Activation, Astrogliosis, BBB Damage, and Infarction and Improves Neurological Damage after Ischemic Stroke. ACS Chem Neurosci 2023. [PMID: 37161270 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.2c00740] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Glial activation is involved in neuroinflammation and blood-brain barrier (BBB) damage, which plays a key role in ischemic stroke-induced neuronal damage; therefore, regulating glial activation is an important way to inhibit ischemic brain injury. Effects of laquinimod (LAQ) include inhibiting axonal damage and neuroinflammation in multiple neuronal injury diseases. However, whether laquinimod can exert neuroprotective effects after ischemic stroke remains unknown. In this study, we investigated the effect of LAQ on glial activation, BBB damage, and neuronal damage in an ischemic stroke model. Adult ICR mice were used to create a photothrombotic stroke (PT) model. LAQ was administered orally at 30 min after ischemic injury. Neurobehavioral tests, Evans Blue, immunofluorescence, TUNEL, Nissl staining, and western blot were performed to evaluate the neurofunctional outcome. Quantification of immunofluorescence was evaluated by unbiased stereology. LAQ post-treatment significantly reduced infarction and improved forepaw function at 5 days after PT. Interestingly, LAQ treatment significantly promoted anti-inflammatory microglial activation. Moreover, LAQ treatment reduced astrocyte activation, glial scar formation, and BBB breakdown in ischemic brains. Therefore, this study demonstrated that LAQ post-treatment restricted microglial polarization, astrogliosis, and glial scar and improved BBB damage and behavioral function. LAQ may serve as a novel target to develop new therapeutic agents for ischemic stroke.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ye Xiong
- The First School of Clinical Medicine, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325035, Zhejiang, P. R. China
| | - Yanqiong Fu
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Institute of Neuroscience, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325035, Zhejiang, P. R. China
| | - Zhuoli Li
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Institute of Neuroscience, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325035, Zhejiang, P. R. China
| | - Yu Zheng
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Institute of Neuroscience, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325035, Zhejiang, P. R. China
| | - Maiyin Cui
- Department of Rehabilitation and Traditional Chinese Medicine, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou 310052, Zhejiang, P. R. China
| | - Chan Zhang
- School of Laboratory Medicine and Life Sciences, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325035, Zhejiang, P. R. China
| | - Xin Yi Huang
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Institute of Neuroscience, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325035, Zhejiang, P. R. China
| | - Yong Jian
- Wenzhou Institute, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wenzhou 325001, Zhejiang, P. R. China
| | - Bai Hui Chen
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Institute of Neuroscience, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325035, Zhejiang, P. R. China
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Wang L, Wang Y, Chen Y, Liu B, Chou D, Bian X, Li R, Wang M, Zheng C. Rhynchophylline ameliorates cerebral ischemia by improving the synaptic plasticity in a middle cerebral artery occlusion induced stroke model. Eur J Pharmacol 2023; 940:175390. [PMID: 36400162 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2022.175390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2022] [Revised: 11/01/2022] [Accepted: 11/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Previous studies have documented that rhynchophylline exerts antioxidative and anti-inflammatory effects on ischemic neuronal damage in vitro or in vivo. There is a considerable lack of direct evidence for its role in neural function and neuroplasticity after ischemic stroke. AIMS This study aims to explore the role of rhynchophylline in middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) induced ischemic stroke model and the potential mechanisms. METHODS Mice were randomly divided into the following three groups: Sham, MCAO + ddH2O, and MCAO + Rhy(40 mg/kg by oral gavage) groups. Cerebral ischemia was induced by MCAO. Cerebral blood flow was monitored to indicate the success of the ischemic model. The neurological severity score and a series of related behavior tests were performed(after MCAO 3d,7d,14d,21d,28d). Golgi staining and Sholl analysis were used to evaluate the complexity of dendrites and the density of dendritic spines. Immunohistochemistry was used to detect the expression of synapsin I and NeuN. RESULTS Administration of rhynchophylline for 7 consecutive days after the onset of cerebral ischemia alleviated the sensory-motor functional defects and ameliorated hippocampus-dependent spatial memory injury as well as reduced the infarct volume induced by MCAO. However, golgi staining and sholl analysis showed that rhynchophylline improved dendritic complexity and spine density as well as the synaptic plasticity. Furthermore,the expression of synapsin I and Neun was significantly reduced after cerebral ischemia and rhynchophylline administration ameliorated the loss of synapsin I. CONCLUSION Rhynchophylline is a promising treatment for ischemic stroke via improving synaptic plasticity and ameliorating the sensory-motor function.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lei Wang
- Department of Physiology, Zhuhai Campus of Zunyi Medical University, Zhuhai, Guangdong, China
| | - Yuguang Wang
- Department of Orthopaedics, Characteristic Medical Center of Chinese People's Armed Police Force, China
| | - YuJie Chen
- Department of Physiology, Zhuhai Campus of Zunyi Medical University, Zhuhai, Guangdong, China
| | - Bo Liu
- Department of Physiology, Zhuhai Campus of Zunyi Medical University, Zhuhai, Guangdong, China
| | - Dylan Chou
- Department of Physiology, Zhuhai Campus of Zunyi Medical University, Zhuhai, Guangdong, China
| | - Xingyu Bian
- Department of Physiology, Zhuhai Campus of Zunyi Medical University, Zhuhai, Guangdong, China
| | - Ruoxin Li
- Department of Physiology, Zhuhai Campus of Zunyi Medical University, Zhuhai, Guangdong, China
| | - Mingxiao Wang
- Department of Physiology, Zhuhai Campus of Zunyi Medical University, Zhuhai, Guangdong, China.
| | - Chen Zheng
- Department of Physiology, Zhuhai Campus of Zunyi Medical University, Zhuhai, Guangdong, China.
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
King H, Reiber M, Philippi V, Stirling H, Aulehner K, Bankstahl M, Bleich A, Buchecker V, Glasenapp A, Jirkof P, Miljanovic N, Schönhoff K, von Schumann L, Leenaars C, Potschka H. Anesthesia and analgesia for experimental craniotomy in mice and rats: a systematic scoping review comparing the years 2009 and 2019. Front Neurosci 2023; 17:1143109. [PMID: 37207181 PMCID: PMC10188949 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2023.1143109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2023] [Accepted: 03/27/2023] [Indexed: 05/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Experimental craniotomies are a common surgical procedure in neuroscience. Because inadequate analgesia appears to be a problem in animal-based research, we conducted this review and collected information on management of craniotomy-associated pain in laboratory mice and rats. A comprehensive search and screening resulted in the identification of 2235 studies, published in 2009 and 2019, describing craniotomy in mice and/or rats. While key features were extracted from all studies, detailed information was extracted from a random subset of 100 studies/year. Reporting of perioperative analgesia increased from 2009 to 2019. However, the majority of studies from both years did not report pharmacologic pain management. Moreover, reporting of multimodal treatments remained at a low level, and monotherapeutic approaches were more common. Among drug groups, reporting of pre- and postoperative administration of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, opioids, and local anesthetics in 2019 exceeded that of 2009. In summary, these results suggest that inadequate analgesia and oligoanalgesia are persistent issues associated with experimental intracranial surgery. This underscores the need for intensified training of those working with laboratory rodents subjected to craniotomies. Systematic review registration https://osf.io/7d4qe.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hannah King
- Institute of Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Pharmacy, Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Maria Reiber
- Institute of Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Pharmacy, Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Vanessa Philippi
- Institute of Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Pharmacy, Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Helen Stirling
- Institute of Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Pharmacy, Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Katharina Aulehner
- Institute of Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Pharmacy, Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Marion Bankstahl
- Hannover Medical School, Institute for Laboratory Animal Science, Hanover, Germany
| | - André Bleich
- Hannover Medical School, Institute for Laboratory Animal Science, Hanover, Germany
| | - Verena Buchecker
- Institute of Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Pharmacy, Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Aylina Glasenapp
- Hannover Medical School, Institute for Laboratory Animal Science, Hanover, Germany
| | - Paulin Jirkof
- Office for Animal Welfare and 3Rs, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Nina Miljanovic
- Institute of Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Pharmacy, Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Katharina Schönhoff
- Institute of Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Pharmacy, Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Lara von Schumann
- Institute of Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Pharmacy, Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Cathalijn Leenaars
- Hannover Medical School, Institute for Laboratory Animal Science, Hanover, Germany
| | - Heidrun Potschka
- Institute of Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Pharmacy, Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, Munich, Germany
- *Correspondence: Heidrun Potschka,
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Zhang Y, Guo X, Peng Z, Liu C, Ren L, Liang J, Wang P. Nicotinamide Mononucleotide Adenylyltransferase 1 Regulates Cerebral Ischemia-Induced Blood-Brain Barrier Disruption Through NAD +/SIRT1 Signaling Pathway. Mol Neurobiol 2022; 59:4879-4891. [PMID: 35657458 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-022-02903-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2021] [Accepted: 05/26/2022] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
The molecular mechanisms of blood-brain barrier (BBB) disruption in the early stage after ischemic stroke are poorly understood. In the present study, we investigated the potential role of nicotinamide mononucleotide adenylyltransferase 1 (NMNAT1) in ischemia-induced BBB damage using an animal middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) model of ischemic stroke. Recombinant human NMNAT1 (rh-NMNAT1) was administered intranasally and Sirtuin 1 (SIRT1) siRNA was administered by intracerebroventricular injection. Our results indicate that rh-NMNAT1 reduced infarct volume, improved functional outcome, and decreased BBB permeability in mice after ischemic stroke. Furthermore, rh-NMNAT1 prevented the loss of tight junction proteins (occludin and claudin-5) and reduced cell apoptosis in ischemic microvessels. NMNAT1-mediated BBB permeability was correlated with the elevation of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+)/NADH ratio and SIRT1 level in brain microvascular endothelial cells. In addition, rh-NMNAT1 treatment significantly decreased the levels of acetylated nuclear factor-κB, acetylated p53, and matrix metalloproteinase-9 in ischemic microvessels. Moreover, the protective effects of rh-NMNAT1 could be reversed by SIRT1 siRNA. In conclusion, these findings indicate that rh-NMNAT1 protects BBB integrity after cerebral ischemia via the NAD+/SIRT1 signaling pathway in brain microvascular endothelial cells. NMNAT1 may be a novel potential therapeutic target for reducing BBB disruption after ischemic stroke.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yang Zhang
- Department of Neurobiology and Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Diseases of Liaoning Province, Jinzhou Medical University, Jinzhou, 121001, Liaoning, China
| | - Xun Guo
- Department of Neurobiology and Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Diseases of Liaoning Province, Jinzhou Medical University, Jinzhou, 121001, Liaoning, China
| | - Zhifeng Peng
- Department of Physiology, Shanxi Datong University, Datong, 037009, Shanxi, China
| | - Chang Liu
- Department of Neurobiology and Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Diseases of Liaoning Province, Jinzhou Medical University, Jinzhou, 121001, Liaoning, China
| | - Lili Ren
- Department of Neurobiology and Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Diseases of Liaoning Province, Jinzhou Medical University, Jinzhou, 121001, Liaoning, China
| | - Jia Liang
- Institute of Life Science, Jinzhou Medical University, Jinzhou, 121001, Liaoning, China.
| | - Peng Wang
- Department of Neurobiology and Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Diseases of Liaoning Province, Jinzhou Medical University, Jinzhou, 121001, Liaoning, China.
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Xia Q, Zhan G, Mao M, Zhao Y, Li X. TRIM45 causes neuronal damage by aggravating microglia-mediated neuroinflammation upon cerebral ischemia and reperfusion injury. Exp Mol Med 2022; 54:180-193. [PMID: 35217833 PMCID: PMC8894463 DOI: 10.1038/s12276-022-00734-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2021] [Revised: 11/06/2021] [Accepted: 12/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Excessive and unresolved neuroinflammation is a key component of the pathological cascade in brain injuries such as ischemic stroke. Tripartite motif-containing 45 (TRIM45) is a ubiquitin E3 ligase involved in various critical biological processes. However, the role of TRIM45 in cerebral ischemia remains unknown. Here, we found that the TRIM45 protein was highly expressed in the peri-infarct areas of mice subjected to cerebral ischemia and reperfusion injury induced by middle cerebral artery occlusion. This study systemically evaluated the putative role of TRIM45 in the regulation of neuroinflammation during ischemic injury and the potential underlying mechanisms. We found that TRIM45 knockdown significantly decreased proinflammatory cytokine and chemokine production in primary cultured microglia challenged with oxygen-glucose deprivation and reoxygenation (OGD/R) treatment. Mechanistically, we demonstrated that TRIM45 constitutively interacted with TAB2 and consequently facilitated the Lys-63-linked polyubiquitination of TAB2, leading to the formation of the TAB1-TAK1-TAB2 complex and activation of TAK1, which was ultimately followed by activation of the nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) signaling pathway. In an in vitro coculture Transwell system, downregulation of TRIM45 expression also inhibited the OGD/R-induced activation of microglia and alleviated neuronal apoptosis. More importantly, microglia-specific knockdown of TRIM45 in mice significantly reduced the infarct size, mitigated neurological deficit scores, and improved cognitive function after ischemic stroke. Taken together, our study reveals that the TRIM45-TAB2 axis is a crucial checkpoint that controls NF-κB signaling in microglia during cerebral ischemia and reperfusion injury. Therefore, targeting TRIM45 may be an attractive therapeutic strategy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Qian Xia
- Department of Anesthesiology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, Hubei Province, China
| | - Gaofeng Zhan
- Department of Anesthesiology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, Hubei Province, China
| | - Meng Mao
- Department of Neurobiology, School of Basic Medicine, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, Hubei Province, China
| | - Yin Zhao
- Department of Ophthalmology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, Hubei Province, China
| | - Xing Li
- Department of Anesthesiology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, Hubei Province, China.
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Liao Y, Wang J, Guo C, Bai M, Ju B, Ran Z, Hu J, Yang J, Wen A, Ding Y. Combination of Systems Pharmacology and Experimental Evaluation to Explore the Mechanism of Synergistic Action of Frankincense-Myrrh in the Treatment of Cerebrovascular Diseases. Front Pharmacol 2022; 12:796224. [PMID: 35082676 PMCID: PMC8784887 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2021.796224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2021] [Accepted: 12/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Frankincense-Myrrh is a classic drug pair that promotes blood circulation, and eliminates blood stasis. The combination of the two drugs has a definite clinical effect on the treatment of cerebrovascular diseases (CBVDs), but its mechanism of action and compatibility have not been elucidated. In this study, the bioactive components, core targets, and possible synergistic mechanisms of Frankincense-Myrrh in the treatment of CBVDs are explored through systems pharmacology combined with in vivo and in vitro experiments. Comparing target genes of components in Frankincense and Myrrh with CBVD-related genes, common genes were identified; 15 core target genes of Frankincense-Myrrh for the treatment of CBVDs were then identified using protein-protein interaction (PPI) analysis. It was also predicted through Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway enrichment analysis that the molecular mechanism of Frankincense-Myrrh action on CBVDs was mainly related to the regulation of neurotrophic factors and inflammatory responses. Frankincense-Myrrh significantly improved neurological function, decreased infarct volume, alleviated histopathological damage, inhibited microglial expression, and promoted the expression of neurons in middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO)-induced rats. The results of this study not only provide important theoretical support and experimental basis for the synergistic effect of Frankincense-Myrrh, but also provide new ideas for the prevention and treatment of cerebral ischemic injuries.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yucheng Liao
- College of Pharmacy, Xinjiang Medical University, Urumqi, China.,Department of Pharmacy, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China
| | - Jingwen Wang
- Department of Pharmacy, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China
| | - Chao Guo
- Department of Pharmacy, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China
| | - Min Bai
- Department of Pharmacy, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China
| | - Bowei Ju
- College of Pharmacy, Xinjiang Medical University, Urumqi, China
| | - Zheng Ran
- College of Pharmacy, Xinjiang Medical University, Urumqi, China
| | - Junping Hu
- College of Pharmacy, Xinjiang Medical University, Urumqi, China
| | - Jianhua Yang
- College of Pharmacy, Xinjiang Medical University, Urumqi, China.,Department of Pharmacy, The First Affiliated Hospital, Xinjiang Medical University, Urumqi, China
| | - Aidong Wen
- Department of Pharmacy, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China
| | - Yi Ding
- Department of Pharmacy, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Zhang JS, Hou PP, Shao S, Manaenko A, Xiao ZP, Chen Y, Zhao B, Jia F, Zhang XH, Mei QY, Hu Q. microRNA-455-5p alleviates neuroinflammation in cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury. Neural Regen Res 2022; 17:1769-1775. [PMID: 35017437 PMCID: PMC8820705 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.332154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Neuroinflammation is a major pathophysiological factor that results in the development of brain injury after cerebral ischemia/reperfusion. Downregulation of microRNA (miR)-455-5p after ischemic stroke has been considered a potential biomarker and therapeutic target for neuronal injury after ischemia. However, the role of miR-455-5p in the post-ischemia/reperfusion inflammatory response and the underlying mechanism have not been evaluated. In this study, mouse models of cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury were established by transient occlusion of the middle cerebral artery for 1 hour followed by reperfusion. Agomir-455-5p, antagomir-455-5p, and their negative controls were injected intracerebroventricularly 2 hours before or 0 and 1 hour after middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO). The results showed that cerebral ischemia/reperfusion decreased miR-455-5p expression in the brain tissue and the peripheral blood. Agomir-455-5p pretreatment increased miR-455-5p expression in the brain tissue, reduced the cerebral infarct volume, and improved neurological function. Furthermore, primary cultured microglia were exposed to oxygen-glucose deprivation for 3 hours followed by 21 hours of reoxygenation to mimic cerebral ischemia/reperfusion. miR-455-5p reduced C-C chemokine receptor type 5 mRNA and protein levels, inhibited microglia activation, and reduced the production of the inflammatory factors tumor necrosis factor-α and interleukin-1β. These results suggest that miR-455-5p is a potential biomarker and therapeutic target for the treatment of cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury and that it alleviates cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury by inhibiting C-C chemokine receptor type 5 expression and reducing the neuroinflammatory response.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jian-Song Zhang
- Central Laboratory, Renji Hospital; Department of Neurosurgery, Renji Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Pin-Pin Hou
- Central Laboratory, Renji Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Shuai Shao
- Department of Neurosurgery, Renji Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Anatol Manaenko
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Zhi-Peng Xiao
- Department of Neurosurgery, Renji Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Yan Chen
- Department of Medical Genetics, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Bing Zhao
- Department of Neurosurgery, Renji Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Feng Jia
- Department of Neurosurgery, Renji Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiao-Hua Zhang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Renji Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Qi-Yong Mei
- Department of Neurosurgery, Changzheng Hospital, the Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Qin Hu
- Central Laboratory, Renji Hospital; Department of Neurosurgery, Renji Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Adipokines as Immune Cell Modulators in Multiple Sclerosis. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms221910845. [PMID: 34639186 PMCID: PMC8509121 DOI: 10.3390/ijms221910845] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2021] [Revised: 09/29/2021] [Accepted: 10/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS), a chronic inflammatory and demyelinating disease of the central nervous system (CNS), is a major clinical and societal problem, which has a tremendous impact on the life of patients and their proxies. Current immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory therapies prove to be relatively effective; however, they fail to concomitantly stop ongoing neurological deterioration and do not reverse acquired disability. The proportion to which genetic and environmental factors contribute to the etiology of MS is still incompletely understood; however, a recent association between MS etiology and obesity was shown, with obesity greatly increasing the risk of developing MS. An altered balance of adipokines, which are white adipose tissue (WAT) hormones, plays an important role in the low-grade chronic inflammation during obesity by their pervasive modification of local and systemic inflammation. Vice versa, inflammatory factors secreted by immune cells affect adipokine function. To explore the role of adipokines in MS pathology, we will here review the reciprocal effects of adipokines and immune cells and summarize alterations in adipokine levels in MS patient cohorts. Finally, we will discuss proof-of-concept studies demonstrating the therapeutic potential of adipokines to target both neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration processes in MS.
Collapse
|
14
|
Xue Y, Nie D, Wang LJ, Qiu HC, Ma L, Dong MX, Tu WJ, Zhao J. Microglial Polarization: Novel Therapeutic Strategy against Ischemic Stroke. Aging Dis 2021; 12:466-479. [PMID: 33815877 PMCID: PMC7990355 DOI: 10.14336/ad.2020.0701] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2020] [Accepted: 07/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Ischemic stroke, which is the second highest cause of death and the leading cause of disability, represents ~71% of all strokes globally. Some studies have found that the key elements of the pathobiology of stroke is immunity and inflammation. Microglia are the first line of defense in the nervous system. After stroke, the activated microglia become a double-edged sword, with distinct phenotypic changes to the deleterious M1 types and neuroprotective M2 types. Therefore, ways to promote microglial polarization toward M2 phenotype after stroke have become the focus of attention in recent years. In this review, we discuss the process of microglial polarization, summarize the alternation of signaling pathways and epigenetic regulation that control microglial polarization in ischemic stroke, aiming to find the potential mechanisms by which microglia can be transformed into the M2 polarized phenotype.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yimeng Xue
- 1Department of Neurosurgery, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.,2Savaid Medical School, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Ding Nie
- 1Department of Neurosurgery, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Lin-Jian Wang
- 1Department of Neurosurgery, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.,2Savaid Medical School, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Han-Cheng Qiu
- 1Department of Neurosurgery, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Long Ma
- 1Department of Neurosurgery, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Ming-Xin Dong
- 3Institute of Radiation Medicine, Chinese Academy of Medical Science & Peking Union Medical College, Tianjin, China
| | - Wen-Jun Tu
- 1Department of Neurosurgery, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.,3Institute of Radiation Medicine, Chinese Academy of Medical Science & Peking Union Medical College, Tianjin, China
| | - Jizong Zhao
- 1Department of Neurosurgery, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.,2Savaid Medical School, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.,4China National Clinical Research Center for Neurological Diseases, Beijing, China.,5Center of Stroke, Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders, Beijing, China.,6Beijing Key Laboratory of Translational Medicine for Cerebrovascular Disease, Beijing, China
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Plasma Proteomic Profiling in Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy Patients before and after Surgical Myectomy Reveals Post-Procedural Reduction in Systemic Inflammation. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22052474. [PMID: 33804404 PMCID: PMC7957543 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22052474] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2021] [Revised: 02/24/2021] [Accepted: 02/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Left Ventricular Outflow Tract (LVOT) obstruction occurs in approximately 70% of Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy (HCM) patients and currently requires imaging or invasive testing for diagnosis, sometimes in conjunction with provocative physiological or pharmaceutical stimuli. To identify potential biomarkers of LVOT obstruction, we performed proteomics profiling of 1305 plasma proteins in 12 HCM patients with documented LVOT obstruction, referred for surgical myectomy. Plasma was collected at the surgical preoperative visit, approximately one month prior to surgery and then at the post-surgical visit, approximately 3 months later. Proteomic profiles were generated using the aptamer-based SOMAscan assay. Principal Component Analysis using the highest statistically significant proteins separated all preoperative samples from all postoperative samples. Further analysis revealed a set of 25 proteins that distinguished the preoperative and postoperative states with a paired t-test p-value of <0.01. Ingenuity Pathway analysis facilitated the generation of protein interaction networks and the elucidation of key upstream regulators of differentially expressed proteins, such as interferon-γ, TGF-β1, and TNF. Biological pathways affected by surgery included organ inflammation, migration, and motility of leukocytes, fibrosis, vasculogenesis, angiogenesis, acute coronary events, endothelial proliferation, eicosanoid metabolism, calcium flux, apoptosis, and morphology of the cardiovascular system. Our results indicate that surgical relief of dynamic outflow tract obstruction in HCM patients is associated with unique alterations in plasma proteomic profiles that likely reflect improvement in organ inflammation and physiological function.
Collapse
|
16
|
Activation of MC1R with BMS-470539 attenuates neuroinflammation via cAMP/PKA/Nurr1 pathway after neonatal hypoxic-ischemic brain injury in rats. J Neuroinflammation 2021; 18:26. [PMID: 33468172 PMCID: PMC7814630 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-021-02078-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2020] [Accepted: 01/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Microglia-mediated neuroinflammation plays a crucial role in the pathogenesis of hypoxic-ischemic (HI)-induced brain injury. Activation of melanocortin-1 receptor (MC1R) has been shown to exert anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective effects in several neurological diseases. In the present study, we have explored the role of MC1R activation on neuroinflammation and the potential underlying mechanisms after neonatal hypoxic-ischemic brain injury in rats. Methods A total of 169 post-natal day 10 unsexed rat pups were used. HI was induced by right common carotid artery ligation followed by 2.5 h of hypoxia. BMS-470539, a specific selective MC1R agonist, was administered intranasally at 1 h after HI induction. To elucidate the potential underlying mechanism, MC1R CRISPR KO plasmid or Nurr1 CRISPR KO plasmid was administered via intracerebroventricular injection at 48 h before HI induction. Percent brain infarct area, short- and long-term neurobehavioral tests, Nissl staining, immunofluorescence staining, and Western blot were conducted. Results The expression levels of MC1R and Nurr1 increased over time post-HI. MC1R and Nurr1 were expressed on microglia at 48 h post-HI. Activation of MC1R with BMS-470539 significantly reduced the percent infarct area, brain atrophy, and inflammation, and improved short- and long-term neurological deficits at 48 h and 28 days post-HI. MC1R activation increased the expression of CD206 (a microglial M2 marker) and reduced the expression of MPO. Moreover, activation of MC1R with BMS-470539 significantly increased the expression levels of MC1R, cAMP, p-PKA, and Nurr1, while downregulating the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNFα, IL-6, and IL-1β) at 48 h post-HI. However, knockout of MC1R or Nurr1 by specific CRISPR reversed the neuroprotective effects of MC1R activation post-HI. Conclusions Our study demonstrated that activation of MC1R with BMS-470539 attenuated neuroinflammation, and improved neurological deficits after neonatal hypoxic-ischemic brain injury in rats. Such anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective effects were mediated, at least in part, via the cAMP/PKA/Nurr1 signaling pathway. Therefore, MC1R activation might be a promising therapeutic target for infants with hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy (HIE). Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12974-021-02078-2.
Collapse
|
17
|
Huang Y, Chen S, Luo Y, Han Z. Crosstalk between Inflammation and the BBB in Stroke. Curr Neuropharmacol 2020; 18:1227-1236. [PMID: 32562523 PMCID: PMC7770647 DOI: 10.2174/1570159x18666200620230321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2020] [Revised: 05/23/2020] [Accepted: 06/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The blood-brain barrier (BBB), which is located at the interface between the central nervous system (CNS) and the circulatory system, is instrumental in establishing and maintaining the microenvironmental homeostasis of the CNS. BBB disruption following stroke promotes inflammation by enabling leukocytes, T cells and other immune cells to migrate via both the paracellular and transcellular routes across the BBB and to infiltrate the CNS parenchyma. Leukocytes promote the removal of necrotic tissues and neuronal recovery, but they also aggravate BBB injury and exacerbate stroke outcomes, especially after late reperfusion. Moreover, the swelling of astrocyte endfeet is thought to contribute to the ‘no-reflow’ phenomenon observed after cerebral ischemia, that is, blood flow cannot return to capillaries after recanalization of large blood vessels. Pericyte recruitment and subsequent coverage of endothelial cells (ECs) alleviate BBB disruption, which causes the transmigration of inflammatory cells across the BBB to be a dynamic process. Furthermore, interneurons and perivascular microglia also make contacts with ECs, astrocytes and pericytes to establish the neurovascular unit. BBB-derived factors after cerebral ischemia triggered microglial activation. During the later stage of injury, microglia remain associated with brain ECs and contribute to repair mechanisms, including postinjury angiogenesis, by acquiring a protective phenotype, which possibly occurs through the release of microglia-derived soluble factors. Taken together, we reviewed dynamic and bidirectional crosstalk between inflammation and the BBB during stroke and revealed targeted interventions based on the crosstalk between inflammation and the BBB, which will provide novel insights for developing new therapeutic strategies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yuyou Huang
- Institute of Cerebrovascular Disease Research and Department of Neurology, Xuanwu Hospital of Capital Medical
University, Beijing, China
| | - Shengpan Chen
- Institute of Cerebrovascular Disease Research and Department of Neurology, Xuanwu Hospital of Capital Medical
University, Beijing, China
| | - Yumin Luo
- Institute of Cerebrovascular Disease Research and Department of Neurology, Xuanwu Hospital of Capital Medical
University, Beijing, China,Beijing Geriatric Medical Research Center and Beijing Key Laboratory of Translational Medicine for Cerebrovascular Diseases, Beijing, China,Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Ziping Han
- Institute of Cerebrovascular Disease Research and Department of Neurology, Xuanwu Hospital of Capital Medical
University, Beijing, China,Beijing Geriatric Medical Research Center and Beijing Key Laboratory of Translational Medicine for Cerebrovascular Diseases, Beijing, China
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Lyu J, Jiang X, Leak RK, Shi Y, Hu X, Chen J. Microglial Responses to Brain Injury and Disease: Functional Diversity and New Opportunities. Transl Stroke Res 2020; 12:474-495. [PMID: 33128703 DOI: 10.1007/s12975-020-00857-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2020] [Revised: 09/21/2020] [Accepted: 09/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
As an integral part of the innate immune system of the brain, resident microglia must react rapidly to the onset of brain injury and neurological disease. These dynamic cells then continue to shift their phenotype along a multidimensional continuum with overlapping pro- and anti-inflammatory states, allowing them to adapt to microenvironmental changes during the progression of brain disorders. However, the ability of microglia to shift phenotype through nimble molecular, structural, and functional changes comes at a cost, as the extreme pro-inflammatory states may prevent these professional phagocytes from clearing toxic debris and secreting tissue-repairing neurotrophic factors. Evolution has strongly favored heterogeneity in microglia in both the spatial and temporal dimensions-they can assume diverse roles in different brain regions, throughout the course of brain development and aging, and during the spatiotemporal progression of brain injuries and neurological diseases. Age and sex differences add further diversity to microglia functional status under physiological and pathological conditions. This article reviews recent advances in our knowledge of microglia with emphases on molecular mediators of phenotype shifts and functional diversity. We describe microglia-targeted therapeutic opportunities, including pharmacologic modulation of phenotype and repopulation of the brain with fresh microglia. With the advent of powerful new tools, research on microglia has recently accelerated in pace and may translate into potential therapeutics against brain injury and neurological disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Junxuan Lyu
- Pittsburgh Institute of Brain Disorders & Recovery and Department of Neurology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA
| | - Xiaoyan Jiang
- Pittsburgh Institute of Brain Disorders & Recovery and Department of Neurology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA.,Geriatric Research, Education and Clinical Center, Veterans Affairs Pittsburgh Health Care System, Pittsburgh, PA, 15261, USA
| | - Rehana K Leak
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, Duquesne University, Pittsburgh, PA, 15282, USA
| | - Yejie Shi
- Pittsburgh Institute of Brain Disorders & Recovery and Department of Neurology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA.,Geriatric Research, Education and Clinical Center, Veterans Affairs Pittsburgh Health Care System, Pittsburgh, PA, 15261, USA
| | - Xiaoming Hu
- Pittsburgh Institute of Brain Disorders & Recovery and Department of Neurology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA.,Geriatric Research, Education and Clinical Center, Veterans Affairs Pittsburgh Health Care System, Pittsburgh, PA, 15261, USA
| | - Jun Chen
- Pittsburgh Institute of Brain Disorders & Recovery and Department of Neurology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA. .,Geriatric Research, Education and Clinical Center, Veterans Affairs Pittsburgh Health Care System, Pittsburgh, PA, 15261, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Zou X, Xie L, Wang W, Zhao G, Tian X, Chen M. FK866 alleviates cerebral pyroptosis and inflammation mediated by Drp1 in a rat cardiopulmonary resuscitation model. Int Immunopharmacol 2020; 89:107032. [PMID: 33045576 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2020.107032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2020] [Revised: 09/17/2020] [Accepted: 09/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Dynamin-related protein 1 (Drp1) mediates mitochondrial fission and triggers NLRP3 inflammasome activation. FK866 (a NAMPT inhibitor) exerts a neuroprotective effect in ischemia/reperfusion injury through the suppression of mitochondrial dysfunction. We explored the effects of FK866 on pyroptosis and inflammation mediated by Drp1 in a cardiac arrest/cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CA/CPR) rat model. METHODS Healthy male Sprague-Dawley rats were subjected to 7 min CA by trans-esophageal electrical stimulation followed by CPR. The surviving rats were treated with FK866 (a selective inhibitor of NAMPT), Mdivi-1 (Drp1 inhibitor), FK866 + Mdivi-1, or vehicle and then underwent 24 h reperfusion. Hematoxylin and eosin staining and immunohistochemistry (to detect NSE) were used to evaluate brain injury. We performed immunofluorescent staining to analyze NLRP3 and GSDMD expression in microglia or astrocytes and western blot to determine expression of NLRP3, IL-1β, GSDMD, Drp1, and Mfn2. Transmission electron microscopy was used to observe mitochondria. RESULTS FK866 significantly decreased pathological damage to brain tissue, inhibited the activation of NLRP3 in microglia or astrocytes, downregulated the expression of NLRP3, IL-1β, GSDMD, p-Drp1 protein, upregulated Mfn2 and improve mitochondrial morphology. CONCLUSIONS Our results demonstrated that FK866 protects the brain against ischemia-reperfusion injury in rats after CA/CPR by inhibiting pyroptosis and inflammation mediated by Drp1.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xinsen Zou
- Intensive Care Unit, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning 530000, Guangxi, China
| | - Lu Xie
- Department of Physiology, Guangxi Medical University, Nanning 530000, Guangxi, China
| | - Wenyan Wang
- Intensive Care Unit, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning 530000, Guangxi, China
| | - Gaoyang Zhao
- Intensive Care Unit, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning 530000, Guangxi, China
| | - Xinyue Tian
- Intensive Care Unit, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning 530000, Guangxi, China
| | - Menghua Chen
- Intensive Care Unit, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning 530000, Guangxi, China.
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Cai Q, Luo J, Ge S, Li Y, Cui W, Wu X, Li C, Wu Y, Feng X, Guo B, Wang Y, Qin H, Qu Y, Feng D. The characteristics of brain injury following cerebral venous infarction induced by surgical interruption of the cortical bridging vein in mice. Brain Res 2020; 1739:146823. [PMID: 32272097 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2020.146823] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2019] [Revised: 04/03/2020] [Accepted: 04/04/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Cerebral venous infarction (CVI) caused by the injury of cortical bridging veins (CBVs), is one of the most serious complications following neurosurgical craniotomy. Different from cerebral artery infarction, this CVI pathological process is more complicated, accompanied by acute venous hypertension, brain edema, cerebral ischemia and hemorrhage in the veins bridged brain area. Therefore, a reliable and stable small animal model is particularly important for the pathological study of CVI induced by surgical CBV interruption (CBVi). A mouse model established by cutting off the right CBVs from bregma to lambda with microsurgical technique is used for the assessment of the pathological process. Adult male mice underwent craniotomy after transection of the parietal skin under anesthesia. The right CBVs were exposed by removing the right skull along the right lateral edge of the sagittal sinus (forming a 4 mm × 3 mm bone window from bregma to lambda) with a drill under the operating microscope. Following the final inspection of the cerebral veins, the CBVs (30% one, 60% two, 10% none) were sacrificed using bipolar coagulation technique. Intracranial pressure (ICP) monitoring, motor function examination, brain edema assessment and brain histopathological observation after perfusion were performed at different time points (6 h, 12 h, 24 h, and 48 h) in the postoperative mice. Cerebral hemisphere swelling, midline shift and subcortical petechial hemorrhage were found on histological sections 6 h after CBVs dissection. The change of ICP was consistent with cerebral edema and peaked at 12 h after surgery, as well as the disruption of the blood-brain barrier assessed by Evans Blue staining. Tissue necrosis, nerve cell loss and monocytes infiltration were also dynamically increased in the postoperative hemispheric cortex. Behavioral tests showed obvious somato- and forelimb-motor dysfunction, and severe somatosensory disorder on the operative mice at 12 h, which were substantially recovered at 48 h. Our study provided a novel mouse model of CVI caused by surgical CBVi that was close to clinical practice, and preliminarily confirmed its pathological process. This model might become an important tool to study the clinical pathology and the molecular mechanism of nerve injury following CVI.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Qing Cai
- Department of Neurosurgery and Institute for Functional Brain Disorders, Tangdu Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, PR China
| | - Jianing Luo
- Department of Neurosurgery and Institute for Functional Brain Disorders, Tangdu Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, PR China
| | - Shunnan Ge
- Department of Neurosurgery and Institute for Functional Brain Disorders, Tangdu Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, PR China
| | - Yang Li
- Department of Neurosurgery and Institute for Functional Brain Disorders, Tangdu Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, PR China
| | - Wenxing Cui
- Department of Neurosurgery and Institute for Functional Brain Disorders, Tangdu Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, PR China
| | - Xun Wu
- Department of Neurosurgery and Institute for Functional Brain Disorders, Tangdu Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, PR China
| | - Chen Li
- Department of Neurosurgery and Institute for Functional Brain Disorders, Tangdu Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, PR China
| | - Yilin Wu
- Department of Neurosurgery and Institute for Functional Brain Disorders, Tangdu Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, PR China
| | - Xiao Feng
- Department of Anthropotomy and Histo-Embryology, School of Basic Medicine, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, PR China
| | - Baolin Guo
- Department of Neurobiology, School of Basic Medicine, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, PR China
| | - Yazhou Wang
- Department of Neurobiology, School of Basic Medicine, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, PR China
| | - Huaizhou Qin
- Department of Neurosurgery and Institute for Functional Brain Disorders, Tangdu Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, PR China
| | - Yan Qu
- Department of Neurosurgery and Institute for Functional Brain Disorders, Tangdu Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, PR China.
| | - Dayun Feng
- Department of Neurosurgery and Institute for Functional Brain Disorders, Tangdu Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, PR China; Department of Neurobiology, School of Basic Medicine, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, PR China.
| |
Collapse
|