Dairy intensification: Drivers, impacts and alternatives

Setting the boundaries-an approach to estimate the Loss Gap in dairy cattle

Dairy production in the UK has undergone substantial restructuring over the last few decades. Farming intensification has led to a reduction in the total numbers of farms and animals, while the average herd size per holding has increased. These ever-changing circumstances have important implications for the health and welfare of dairy cows, as well as the overall business performance of farms. For decision-making in dairy farming, it is essential to understand the underlying causes of the inefficiencies and their relative impact. The investigation of yield gaps regarding dairy cattle has been focused on specific causes. However, in addition to the risk of overestimating the impact of a specific ailment, this approach does not allow understanding of the relative contribution to the total, nor does it allow understanding of how well-described that gap is in terms of underlying causes. Using the English and Welsh dairy sectors as an example, this work estimates the Loss Gap-composed of yield losses and health expenditure - using a benchmarking approach and scenario analysis. The Loss Gap was estimated by comparing the current performance of dairy herds as a baseline with that of scenarios where assumptions were made about the milk production of cows, production costs, market prices, mortality, and expenditure related to health events. A deterministic model was developed, consisting of an enterprise budget, in which the cow was the unit, with milking herd and young stock treated separately. When constraining milk production, the model estimated an annual Loss Gap of £148 to £227 million for the whole sector. The reduction in costs of veterinary services and medicines, alongside herd replacement costs, were important contributors to the estimate with some variation between the scenarios. Milk price had a substantial impact in the estimate, with revenue from milk yield representing more than 30% of the Loss Gap, when milk price was benchmarked against that of the top performing farms. This framework provides the boundaries for understanding the relative burden from specific causes in English and Welsh dairy cattle, ensuring that the sum of the estimated losses due to particular problem does not exceed the losses from all-causes, health or non-health related.

How the type of dairy production system affects the nutrient balance from an environmental and economic perspective

The knowledge of nutrient flow in dairy farms has to be explored to find optimized strategies for efficient nutrient conversion to milk. This study aims to improve the understanding of variances in nitrogen and phosphorus balance and efficiency indicators between dairy farm systems. The study analyzed 67 dairy cattle farms located in the watershed Lajeado Tacongava, Rio Grande do Sul State, Brazil. Selected dairy farms represented three production systems: confined (3 farms); semi-confined (7 farms); pasture-based (57 farms). Input-output nutrient balances were calculated at the dairy system level for nitrogen and phosphorus over a year. Inputs are feed and fertilizer and outputs are milk and meat. The main nitrogen and phosphorus input on the all farms resulted from the feed. The average N and P surplus on pasture-based farms were 352 and 49 kg ha-1 year-1, respectively. In semi-confined systems were 508 and 63 kg ha-1 year-1 and in confined systems were 786 and 70 kg ha-1 year-1. When considering the monetary value of the total N surplus, the averages were US$ 2.615, 4.950, and 12.171 for pasture-based, semi-confined and confined systems respectively. Monetary values of P surplus were US$ 346, 588, and 1119 for pasture-based, semi-confined and confined. The productive aspects that most determined the values of N and P surplus were the total number of lactating cows and the farm area. Results indicate that surplus can partially replace chemical nitrogen fertilizer, except in the confined system, and fully replace phosphorus fertilizer. Confined farms presented values to use surplus as fertilizer greater than the crop demand. For the other production systems, it happens only for phosphorus. Large variability between dairy farms of the same production system and between different production systems was observed. It reflects the inherent productive, economic, and environmental conditions of each farm and system.

Current status and challenges for cell-cultured milk technology: a systematic review

Cellular agriculture is an innovative technology for manufacturing sustainable agricultural products as an alternative to traditional agriculture. While most cellular agriculture is predominantly centered on the production of cultured meat, there is a growing demand for an understanding of the production techniques involved in dairy products within cellular agriculture. This review focuses on the current status of cellular agriculture in the dairy sector and technical challenges for cell-cultured milk production. Cellular agriculture technology in the dairy sector has been classified into fermentation-based and animal cell culture-based cellular agriculture. Currently, various companies synthesize milk components through precision fermentation technology. Nevertheless, several startup companies are pursuing animal cell-based technology, driven by public concerns regarding genetically modified organisms in precision fermentation technology. Hence, this review offers an up-to-date exploration of animal cell-based cellular agriculture to produce milk components, specifically emphasizing the structural, functional, and productive aspects of mammary epithelial cells, providing new information for industry and academia.

Effect of stocking density on performance, survival and nutrient composition of super worm Zophobas Morio (Coleoptera:Tenebrionidae)

As the global demand for animal protein continues to increase, the need for sustainable and resource-efficient alternatives for animal feed becomes increasingly paramount. Insects have gained significant attention as promising candidates to support the sustainable development of the feed industry, and their utilization in animal feed has seen substantial growth in recent years. Therefore, this study was conducted to optimize the superworm (Zophobas morio) larvae rearing stocking density on the biomass production, survival, and nutrient composition. Two-weeks-old Z. morio larvae were maintained at 25 ± 2 oC and 70% relative humidity, and at densities of 0.5, 0.75, 1 and 1.25 cm2 space per larva, respectively. The insects reared with a density of 1.25 cm2 per larvae had higher feed intake (FI) and weight gain (WG) (P < 0.05). However, better feed conversion efficiency (FCE) was recorded with a density of 0.75 cm2 per larvae (P < 0.05). The survival significantly increased with increasing the density per larvae (P < 0.05). High survival of Z. morio larvae was recorded at density of 1 and 1.25 cm2 per larvae. The dry matter and fat contents of Z. morio larvae were higher at density of 0.5 cm2 per larvae (P < 0.05). However, the protein content was higher at density of 1 and 1.25 cm2 per larvae (P < 0.05). Moreover, the ash content was higher at 0.5, 0.75, and 1.25 cm2 per larvae (P < 0.05). This study highlights that Z. morio larvae rearing stocking density has a profound influence on growth performance, survival and its nutrient composition.

Climate change and dairy farming sustainability; a causal loop paradox and its mitigation scenario

It is arguable at this time whether climate change is a cause or effect of the disruption in dairy farming. Climate change drastically affects the productive performance of livestock, including milk and meat production, and this could be attributed to the deviation of energy resources towards adaptive mechanisms. However, livestock farming also contributes substantially to the existing greenhouse gas pool, which is the causal of the climate change. We gathered relevant information from the recent publication and reviewed it to elaborate on sustainable dairy farming management in a changing climatic scenario, and efforts are needed to gather this material to develop methods that could help to overcome the adversities associated with livestock industries. We summarize the intervention points to reverse these adversities, such as application of genetic technology, nutrition intervention, utilization of chemical inhibitors, immunization, and application of metagenomics, which may help to sustain farm animal production in the changing climate scenario.

Production, Composition and Nutritional Properties of Organic Milk: A Critical Review

Milk is one of the most valuable products in the food industry with most milk production throughout the world being carried out using conventional management, which includes intensive and traditional systems. The intensive use of fertilizers, antibiotics, pesticides and concerns regarding animal health and the environment have given increasing importance to organic dairy and dairy products in the last two decades. This review aims to compare the production, nutritional, and compositional properties of milk produced by conventional and organic dairy management systems. We also shed light on the health benefits of milk and the worldwide scenario of the organic dairy production system. Most reports suggest milk has beneficial health effects with very few, if any, adverse effects reported. Organic milk is reported to confer additional benefits due to its lower omega-6-omega-3 ratio, which is due to the difference in feeding practices, with organic cows predominantly pasture fed. Despite the testified animal, host, and environmental benefits, organic milk production is difficult in several regions due to the cost-intensive process and geographical conditions. Finally, we offer perspectives for a better future and highlight knowledge gaps in the organic dairy management system.

A glimpse into plant-based fermented products alternative to animal based products: Formulation, processing, health benefits

Fermented foods and beverages are increasingly being included in the diets of people around the world, as they significantly contribute to flavor and interest in nutrition and food consumption. Plant sources, like cereals and pulses, are employed to produce vegan fermented foods that are either commercially available or the subject of ongoing scientific investigation. In addition, the inclination towards nutritionally healthy, natural, and clean-label products amongst consumers has encouraged the development of vegan fermented products alternative to animal-based products for industrial-scale production. However, as the vegan diet is more restrictive than the vegetarian diet, manufacturing food products for vegans presents a significant problem due to the limited availability of many raw materials. So further research is required on this topic. This paper aims to review the formulation, quality, microbial resources, health benefits, and safety of foods that can be categorised as vegan fermented foods and beverages.

Potential associations between organic dairy products, gut microbiome, and gut health: A review

Organic products have received longstanding, widespread attention for their nutritional and ecological benefits, as they are said to have certain positive health attributes and contain fewer harmful compounds than conventional (or non-organic) products. We reviewed the recent literature to examine potential associations between nutrient composition, gut microbiota, and gut health effects in recent comparative studies of organic and conventional dairy products. Trends of increased ratios of omega-3 to omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids and unsaturated to saturated fat, increased fat-soluble vitamin content, and decreased levels of certain pernicious contaminants in organic milk were observed across the studies reviewed. Studies of the metabolism of these nutrients in both in vitro and in vivo settings, and their or their metabolites' interaction with the intestinal epithelium show that nutrients enriched in organic dairy products may support host nutrient uptake and mediate gut inflammation. Research on the effects of single food products or classes of food products on gut health is rare. The extent of these benefits is highly likely to be mediated by both the magnitude of the difference in nutrient types and quantities, and by dietary intake levels of dairy products. Intervention studies directly examining the different effects of organic and conventional dairy products on gut health in humans are needed to further elucidate this relationship.

Dairy and Plant-Based Milks: Implications for Nutrition and Planetary Health

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Dairy milk products are dominant in the market; however, plant-based milks are gaining prominence among USA consumers. Many questions remain about how plant-based milk products compare to dairy milk from a nutrition, public health, and planetary health perspective. Here, we compare the retail sales, nutrient profiles, and known health and environmental impacts of the production and consumption of dairy and plant-based milks and identify knowledge gaps for future studies. For our plant-based milk comparisons, we reviewed almond, soy, oat, coconut, rice, pea, cashew, and other plant-based milks as data were available.

RECENT FINDINGS

The retail unit price of plant-based milks was generally higher than that of cow's milk, making it less accessible to lower-income groups. Many plant-based milks are fortified to match the micronutrient profile of dairy milk more closely. Notable differences remained, especially in protein, zinc, and potassium, depending on the base ingredient and individual product. Some plant-based milks contain added sugar to improve flavor. Plant-based milks were generally associated with lower environmental impacts (e.g., greenhouse gas emissions, water use) than cow's milk, with the notable exception of the higher water footprint of almond milk. This review of recent studies and consumer purchases confirmed that retail sales of plant-based milks are increasing and shifting among products. Further research is needed to better characterize the environmental impacts of newer plant-based milks, such as cashew, hemp, and pea milks; consumer attitudes and behavior towards plant-based milks; and the safety and potential health effects related to their long-term and more frequent consumption.

Population structure of Phanaeus vindex (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) in SE Michigan

Until now, little is known about the population structure and mobility of temperate dung beetles including the rainbow scarab, Phanaeus vindex (MacLeay 1819), although this knowledge is essential for their conservation as pastures become increasingly rare and the landscape fragmented by monocultures and urbanization. Here, we estimated population size, longevity, and dispersal within and between pastures. For 3 yr, we life-trapped beetles every week on 2 adjacent farms in SE Michigan, determined their sex, male morph, and size, and marked their elytra with individual tattoo patterns before releasing them. We marked a total of 470 rainbow scarabs of which 14 were recaptured once and 2 were recaptured twice. The sex ratio was not significantly sex-biased but fluctuated between months with no apparent uniformity between years. While the minor to major male ratios were unbiased in 2019 and 2020, they were marginally minor-biased in 2021. The gross population estimates for the 2 farms were 458-491 and 217 rainbow scarabs, respectively. Beetles traveled distances of up to 178 m within farms. No beetles dispersed between farms. One large female was recaptured after 338 days documenting the first cold hardiness and long lifespan of a cold-temperate dung beetle species in the wild. The low population estimates on both farms indicate 2 vulnerable populations with no or extremely limited connectivity. Supplementary funding for the land stewardship of small-scale cattle farmers could stabilize populations of native dung beetles and maintain their ecosystem services.

Mutual Effect of Gypsum and Potassium on Nutrient Productivity in the Alfalfa-Grass Sward-A Case Study

It was assumed that the production of alfalfa in soils naturally poor in available nutrients, such as potassium (K) and calcium (Ca), depends on the use of fertilizers. This hypothesis was validated in an experiment with an alfalfa-grass mixture carried out in 2012, 2013 and 2014 on soil formed from loamy sand that had a low content of available Ca and K. The two-factor experiment consisted of two levels of applied gypsum as a source of Ca (0, 500 kg ha^-1) and five levels of PK fertilizers (absolute control, P60K0, P60K30, P60K60 and P60K120). The total yield of the sward was determined by the main seasons of alfalfa-grass sward use. Gypsum application increased the yield by 1.0 t ha^-1. The highest yield of 14.9 t ha^-1 was obtained on the plot fertilized with P60K120. Based on the nutrient content in the sward, it was shown that the main yield predictor was the content of K in the first cut of sward use. The reliable yield predictors, based on the total accumulation of nutrients in the sward, turned out to be K, Mg and Fe. The nutritional quality of the alfalfa-grass fodder, based on the K/Ca + Mg ratio, depended mainly on the season of the sward use, which was substantially deteriorated by the K fertilizer. Gypsum did not control this process. The productivity of the nutrients taken up by the sward depended on the accumulated K. Its yield-forming effect was significantly limited by manganese deficiency. The use of gypsum positively affected the uptake of micronutrients, consequently increasing their unit productivity, especially of manganese. Optimization of the production of alfalfa-grass mixtures in soils poor in basic nutrients requires micronutrients to be taken into account. Their uptake by plants can be limited by high doses of basic fertilizers.

Plant-Based Alternatives to Cheese Formulated Using Blends of Zein and Chickpea Protein Ingredients

In this study, zein protein isolate (ZPI) and chickpea protein concentrate (CPC) ingredients were used to formulate five plant-based cheese alternatives. Ingredient ratios based on protein contributions of 0:100, 25:75, 50:50, 75:25 and 100:0 from ZPI and CPC, respectively, were used. Formulations were developed at pH ~4.5, with a moisture target of 59%. Shea butter was used to target 15% fat, while tapioca starch was added to target the same carbohydrate content for all samples. Microstructural analysis showed differences among samples, with samples containing ZPI displaying a protein-rich layer surrounding the fat globules. Schreiber meltability and dynamic low amplitude oscillatory shear rheological analyses showed that increasing the proportion of ZPI was associated with increasing meltability and greater ability to flow at high temperatures. In addition, the sample containing only CPC showed the highest adhesiveness, springiness and cohesiveness values from the texture profile analysis, while the sample containing only ZPI exhibited the highest hardness. Furthermore, stretchability increased with increasing ZPI proportions. This work will help understanding of the role and potential of promising plant-protein-ingredient blends in formulating plant-based alternatives to cheese with desirable functional properties.

“Got Milk Alternatives?” Understanding Key Factors Determining U.S. Consumers’ Willingness to Pay for Plant-Based Milk Alternatives

Milk is an important dairy product in U.S. food retail. Lifestyle changes toward climate-conscious consumption, animal welfare, and food safety concerns have increased the popularity of plant-based milk alternatives. This study is focused on such beverages and provides insights and best practice recommendations for marketing managers in the U.S. food retail sector. An online survey was distributed to explore factors explaining the intentions of U.S. consumers to purchase and pay a premium for plant-based milk alternatives. Food curiosity and food price inflation were identified as relevant for both willingness to buy and willingness to pay a price premium. In addition, animal welfare concerns and the green and clean product image of plant-based alternatives were relevant to the willingness to pay a premium for plant-based milk.

Sustainability of dairy systems through the lenses of the sustainable development goals

In this paper, we propose to view the sustainability of dairy farming as nested within the sustainability of agriculture, a subset of the sustainability of food systems, which in turn could be construed as a subset of the national commitments of a country to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Disciplinary, multidisciplinary, and interdisciplinary research are essential to study bio-physical system components and their interactions. However, when dairy farming is viewed as nested within broader societal systems, the inclusion of human elements calls for transdisciplinary research. Few of the 17 SDGs are left untouched by the livestock sector. Research should aim at identifying relevant farm-level metrics that are in alignment with any of the 231 indicators supporting the SDGs. We used two examples to illustrate the approach. In the first, SDG 13 (Climate Action) is used as a reminder that despite the current emphasis on reducing milk carbon footprint (kg CO2-e/kg milk), the contribution of the sector to Climate Action depends on reducing its annual emission (kg CO2-e/year; indicator 13.2.2). In the second example, indicator 2.4.1 (land use for sustainable agriculture) of SDG 2 (Zero Hunger) is used to illustrate the potential tradeoffs between Milk N/Intake N as a metric of nitrogen use efficiency at the cow level and metrics such as the input:output ratio of human-edible protein (Milk N/Intake of human-edible N) that prioritize the use of human-inedible feed in dairy rations as a way to enhance efficiency and circularity at the food system level.

Fur removal promotes an earlier expression of involution-related genes in mammary gland of lactating mice

Peak lactation occurs when milk production is at its highest. The factors limiting peak lactation performance have been subject of intense debate. Milk production at peak lactation appears limited by the capacity of lactating females to dissipate body heat generated as a by-product of processing food and producing milk. As a result, manipulations that enhance capacity to dissipate body heat (such as fur removal) increase peak milk production. We investigated the potential correlates of shaving-induced increases in peak milk production in laboratory mice. By transcriptomic profiling of the mammary gland, we searched for the mechanisms underlying experimentally increased milk production and its consequences for mother-young conflict over weaning, manifested by advanced or delayed involution of mammary gland. We demonstrated that shaving-induced increases in milk production were paradoxically linked to reduced expression of some milk synthesis-related genes. Moreover, the mammary glands of shaved mice had a gene expression profile indicative of earlier involution relative to unshaved mice. Once provided with enhanced capacity to dissipate body heat, shaved mice were likely to rear their young to independence faster than unshaved mothers.

The effects of spring feeding strategy on pasture productivity, sward quality, and animal performance within intensive pasture-based dairy systems

The objective of this research was to evaluate how different feeding strategies based on various pasture availability (PA) treatments within intensive seasonal production systems affected pasture production and utilization, sward quality, and the milk production, body weight (BW), and body condition score (BCS) of dairy cows. The performance data were obtained from a 3-yr experiment conducted previously (2018-2020, inclusive). In total, records from 208 spring-calving dairy cows were available for analysis. The animals were randomly allocated to 1 of 3 PA grazing treatments in spring that varied in average pasture cover (measured as herbage mass available above 3.5 cm) that was established via different pasture management strategies in the previous autumn. Thus, the opening average pasture cover across all paddocks on February 1 was 1,100 kg of dry matter (DM)/ha for high pasture availability (HPA), 880 for medium pasture availability (MPA), and 650 for low pasture availability (LPA), respectively. The measurements were taken over an 8-wk period during the first grazing rotation in spring, commencing on February 16 (±2 d) and finishing when all paddocks were grazed once on April 12 (±5 d). Paddocks that were part of the HPA treatment showed the highest pregrazing herbage masses and pregrazing sward heights (1,645 kg of DM/ha and 8.2 cm, respectively) compared with MPA (1,412 kg of DM/ha and 7.5 cm, respectively) and LPA (1,170 kg of DM/ha and 6.9 cm, respectively). Owing to the differences in PA, daily herbage allowance was greatest for HPA (11.7 kg of DM/cow), intermediate for MPA (10.2 kg of DM/cow), and lowest for LPA (8.8 kg of DM/cow), with the remaining feed deficit composed of additional daily grass silage supplementation (0.8, 1.5, and 2.8 kg of DM/cow for HPA, MPA, and LPA, respectively), while the daily concentrate and daily total feed allowance were equal between treatments during spring (2.7 and 15.0 kg of DM/cow). Despite salient differences in fresh pasture used, complementing pasture intake with grass silage did not affect daily or cumulative milk, solids-corrected milk, fat, or protein yield or milk constituents. Similarly, BW and BCS were also unaffected by PA treatment. The results highlight the importance of high spring pasture utilization and grazing efficiency achievable with higher pregrazing herbage masses, which also allow larger animal intakes from grazed pasture as the cheapest feed source during spring. Moreover, targeting an adequate pasture supply at the commencement of calving increases the grazing days per hectare and lowers the requirement for supplementary feed on farm, particularly when facing increasing variability in climatic conditions.

Research Progress of Grassland Ecosystem Structure and Stability and Inspiration for Improving Its Service Capacity in the Karst Desertification Control

The structure and stability of grassland ecosystems have a significant impact on biodiversity, material cycling and productivity for ecosystem services. However, the issue of the structure and stability of grassland ecosystems has not been systematically reviewed. Based on the Web of Science (WOS) and China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI) databases, we used the systematic-review method and screened 133 papers to describe and analyze the frontiers of research into the structure and stability of grassland ecosystems. The research results showed that: (1) The number of articles about the structure and stability of grassland ecosystems is gradually increasing, and the research themes are becoming increasingly diverse. (2) There is a high degree of consistency between the study area and the spatial distribution of grassland. (3) Based on the changes in ecosystem patterns and their interrelationships with ecosystem processes, we reviewed the research progress and landmark results on the structure, stability, structure-stability relationship and their influencing factors of grassland ecosystems; among them, the study of structure is the main research focus (51.12%), followed by the study of the influencing factors of structure and stability (37.57%). (4) Key scientific questions on structural optimization, stability enhancement and harmonizing the relationship between structure and stability are explored. (5) Based on the background of karst desertification control (KDC) and its geographical characteristics, three insights are proposed to optimize the spatial allocation, enhance the stability of grassland for rocky desertification control and coordinate the regulation mechanism of grassland structure and stability. This study provided some references for grassland managers and relevant policy makers to optimize the structure and enhance the stability of grassland ecosystems. It also provided important insights to enhance the service capacity of grassland ecosystems in KDC.

A Bioeconomic Model for the Thoroughbred Racing Industry-Optimisation of the Production Cycle with a Horse Centric Welfare Perspective

The Thoroughbred racing industry faces new and competing pressures to operate within a modern, changing society. Three major moderators drive the focus and productivity of the industry worldwide: economic sustainability, horse biology and social licence to operate. This review proposes that despite the apparent homogeneity in the structure of racing across jurisdictions due to international regulation of the sport, there are significant differences within each jurisdiction in each of the three moderators. This creates challenges for the comparison of injury risk factors for racehorses within the industry across different jurisdictions. Comparison of the relative distribution of racing and gambling metrics internationally indicates that the Asian jurisdictions have a high focus on gambling efficiency and high economic return of the product, with a high number of starts per horse and the highest relative betting turnover. In contrast, the racing metrics from the USA have proportionally low racing stakes and fewer horses per race. These differences provide insight into the sociology of horse ownership, with a shift from the long-term return on investment held by most jurisdictions to a short-term transitional view and immediate return on investment in others. Wastage studies identify varying risks influenced by the predominant racing culture, training methods, production focus and environment within individual jurisdictions. Increasing societal pressure to maintain high racehorse welfare and reduce the negative impact of gambling poses fluctuating risks to each jurisdiction's social licence to operate. Based on the data presented within this review, the authors propose that the use of a bioeconomic model would permit consideration of all three moderators on industry practice and optimisation of the jurisdiction-specific production cycle with a horse-centric welfare perspective.

Exploring the effect of auditory stimuli on activity levels, milk yield and faecal glucocorticoid metabolite concentrations in Holstein cows

Health and welfare are inextricably linked within efficient and sustainable dairy production, and several potential risk factors may affect the well-being of dairy cows, including chronic stress. Although auditory stimuli could be used as a tool to decrease the potential stress that cows might experience, it is seldom applied to livestock production systems due to the perception that enrichment is an unnecessary expense. This study aimed to explore the effect of auditory stimuli as a form of enrichment in a Holstein herd by monitoring fecal glucocorticoid metabolite (fGCM) concentrations (a non-invasive, stress-associated biomarker). Cow activity level and milk yield were also measured. Nine cows in their second and third lactation were divided into 3 groups, using a Latin Square experimental design, exposing each cow group to each of the 3 treatments, namely constant exposure (CE), limited exposure (LE), and no exposure (NE) to classical music. FGCMs were quantified using a group-specific enzyme immunoassay detecting 11,17-dioxoandrostanes. Compared to LE and NE animals, cows exposed to constant music had significantly lower fGCM concentrations (P = 0.012), as well as higher milk yields (P < 0.0001) and lowered activity levels during the morning (P = 0.005) and the evening activity period (P = 0.048). These findings indicate that auditory stimuli in the form of classical music may have a positive effect on the welfare of cows as well as milk yield, which hold economic benefits for the producer and potentially reduces the number of cows needed for profitable production.

Multiclonal human origin and global expansion of an endemic bacterial pathogen of livestock

Most new pathogens of humans and animals arise via switching events from distinct host species. However, our understanding of the evolutionary and ecological drivers of successful host adaptation, expansion, and dissemination are limited. Staphylococcus aureus is a major bacterial pathogen of humans and a leading cause of mastitis in dairy cows worldwide. Here we trace the evolutionary history of bovine S. aureus using a global dataset of 10,254 S. aureus genomes including 1,896 bovine isolates from 32 countries in 6 continents. We identified 7 major contemporary endemic clones of S. aureus causing bovine mastitis around the world and traced them back to 4 independent host-jump events from humans that occurred up to 2,500 y ago. Individual clones emerged and underwent clonal expansion from the mid-19th to late 20th century coinciding with the commercialization and industrialization of dairy farming, and older lineages have become globally distributed via established cattle trade links. Importantly, we identified lineage-dependent differences in the frequency of host transmission events between humans and cows in both directions revealing high risk clones threatening veterinary and human health. Finally, pangenome network analysis revealed that some bovine S. aureus lineages contained distinct sets of bovine-associated genes, consistent with multiple trajectories to host adaptation via gene acquisition. Taken together, we have dissected the evolutionary history of a major endemic pathogen of livestock providing a comprehensive temporal, geographic, and gene-level perspective of its remarkable success.

Optimization and modeling of ammonia nitrogen removal from anaerobically digested liquid dairy manure using vacuum thermal stripping process

During anaerobic digestion (AD) of liquid dairy manure, organic nitrogen converts to ammonia nitrogen (NH₃-N) and subsequently escalates the NH₃-N concentrations in manure. Among different available NH₃-N removal processes treating anaerobically digested liquid dairy manure (ADLDM), vacuum thermal stripping is reported to be an effective technique. However, none of the studies have performed multi-parameter optimization, which is of utmost significance in maximizing process efficiency. In this study, critical operational parameters for vacuum thermal stripping of NH₃-N from ADLDM were optimized and modeled for the first time via integrating grey relational analysis (GRA)-based Taguchi design, response surface methodology (RSM), and RSM-artificial neural network (ANN). The initial experimental trials conducted using the GRA coupled with Taguchi L₁₆ orthogonal array revealed the order of influence of the process parameters on NH₃-N removal as vacuum pressure (kPa) > temperature (°C) > treatment time (min) > mixing speed (rpm) > pH. The values of the first three most influential operating parameters were then further optimized and modeled using RSM and RSM-ANN models. Under the optimized conditions (temperature: 69.6 °C, vacuum pressure: 43.5 kPa, and treatment time: 87.65 min), the NH₃-N removal efficiency of 93.58 ± 0.59 % was experimentally observed and was in line with the RSM and RSM-ANN models' predicted values. While the RSM-ANN model showed a better prediction potential than did the RSM model when compared statistically. Moreover, the nutrient contents (nitrogen, N and sulfur, S) of the recovered NH₃-N as ammonium sulfate ((NH₄)₂SO₄) were in reasonable agreement with the market-available (NH₄)₂SO₄ fertilizer. The results presented in this study provide important insights into improving the treatment process performance and will help design and operate future pilot- and full-scale vacuum thermal stripping processes in dairy farms.

Neoliberal peri-urban economies and the predicament of dairy farmers: a case study of the Illawarra region, New South Wales

Rural Australia has been experiencing dramatic agricultural restructuring. A major contributor to this in some areas is peri-urban and rural residential developments, and amenity/lifestyle developments, including those associated with the inflow of urban middle-class groups into rural areas. These processes are intertwined with neoliberal trends in agri-food governance, and have complex effects on farming. However, there is a lack of farm-level studies that explore how professional farmers have been interacting and co-existing with urban/suburban development while also undertaking agricultural intensification and innovation. This study aims to examine how residential and amenity/lifestyle developments have unfolded in the Illawarra region, New South Wales, and come to influence and interact with local dairy farmers who are also managing the consequences of industry restructuring particularly from 2000. Based on semi-structured interviews, this study shows that with their proximity to Sydney, Illawarra dairy farms are influenced by deregulated planning systems, large-scale residential development, amenity driven demand for rural land, and the amenity/lifestyle economy. These processes bring farmers commercial opportunities and drive farmers to form new social and economic relationships with land buyers and investors. However, it has been increasingly difficult for farmers to acquire land for farming locally. They are also subjected to the expectations and demands of new landholders, including in relation to farm externalities and animal welfare. Farmers have to transform their production systems to fit into this context. The above factors together generate a form of multifunctional rural space.

Unraveling feed and nutrient use efficiencies in grassland-based dairy farms

Grassland-based dairy farms are important for the provisioning of milk and ecosystem services. However, the key factors and interactions that influence the feed use efficiency of grassland-based dairy farms in practice are not well known and understood, and as a consequence no well-targeted recommendations can be provided. This paper addresses the question ‘what are the main factors that determine the variations in calculated feed efficiency and N and P use efficiencies on dairy farms subjected to agri-environmental regulations’. Monitoring and modeling data from ~12000 grassland-based dairy farms in The Netherlands over a 4 year period (2017–2020), collected through the KringloopWijzer model, were analyzed and the data from 2020 were statistically analyzed in detail. Farms greatly differed in milk production intensity (range &lt; 10 to &gt;25 Mg per ha per yr) and in the amount of purchased feed. The 5 and 95 percentile values of frequency distribution of the calculated annual mean feed efficiency at herd level were 0.9 and 1.3 kg milk per kg feed dry matter, respectively. Feed efficiency was statistically related to milk yield and number of young stock per cow, the share of concentrates and silage maize in the ration, and the net energy content of silage grass. At herd level, the 5 and 95 percentile values of the calculated annual mean N use efficiency increased with feed efficiency from 21 to 28%, and those of the annual mean P use efficiency from 32 to 40%. Contrary to expectations, mean surpluses of N and P at farm level remained more or less constant with feed efficiency and the intensity of milk production, but the amounts of purchased feed and manure export strongly increased with the intensity of milk production. The N and P surpluses and use efficiencies at farm level were sensitive to accounting for the externalization of feed production and manure utilization. The modeled ammonia and methane emissions per kg milk produced were relatively low on farms with high feed efficiency. In conclusion, feed use and N and P use efficiencies are key indicator for the profitability and environmental performance of dairy farms. Differences between farms in these key indicators were large, and these differences were related to a limited number of explanatory variables. Our study provides lessons for improving the profitability and environmental performance of grassland-based dairy farms.

Dairy 4.0: Intelligent Communication Ecosystem for the Cattle Animal Welfare with Blockchain and IoT Enabled Technologies

An intelligent ecosystem with real-time wireless technology is now playing a key role in meeting the sustainability requirements set by the United Nations. Dairy cattle are a major source of milk production all over the world. To meet the food demand of the growing population with maximum productivity, it is necessary for dairy farmers to adopt real-time monitoring technologies. In this study, we will be exploring and assimilating the limitless possibilities for technological interventions in dairy cattle to drastically improve their ecosystem. Intelligent systems for sensing, monitoring, and methods for analysis to be used in applications such as animal health monitoring, animal location tracking, milk quality, and supply chain, feed monitoring and safety, etc., have been discussed briefly. Furthermore, generalized architecture has been proposed that can be directly applied in the future for breakthroughs in research and development linked to data gathering and the processing of applications through edge devices, robots, drones, and blockchain for building intelligent ecosystems. In addition, the article discusses the possibilities and challenges of implementing previous techniques for different activities in dairy cattle. High computing power-based wearable devices, renewable energy harvesting, drone-based furious animal attack detection, and blockchain with IoT assisted systems for the milk supply chain are the vital recommendations addressed in this study for the effective implementation of the intelligent ecosystem in dairy cattle.

Effect of Paulownia Leaves Extract Levels on In Vitro Ruminal Fermentation, Microbial Population, Methane Production, and Fatty Acid Biohydrogenation

Paulownia is a fast-growing tree that produces a huge mass of leaves as waste that can be used as a feed source for ruminants. The previous study showed that phenolic compounds were the most active biological substances in Paulownia leaves, which affected the ruminal parameters and methane concentration. However, there are no scientific reports on the Paulownia leaves extract (PLE) containing phenolic compounds for their mode of action in the rumen. Phenolics constituted the main group of bioactive compounds in PLE (84.4 mg/g dry matter). PLE lowered the concentration of ammonia, modulated the VFA profile in the ruminal fluid, and decreased methane production. The PLE caused a significant reduction of in vitro dry matter degradability, reduced the number of methanogens and protozoa, and affected selected bacteria populations. PLE had a promising effect on the fatty acid profile in the ruminal fluid. Paulownia as a new dietary component or its extract as a feed additive may be used to mitigate ruminal methanogenesis, resulting in environmental protection and reducing ruminal biohydrogenation, improving milk and meat quality.

Effect of milking environment enrichment through music on production performance and behaviour in cattle

Enrichment of milking environment through music has been proposed to help animals to cope with divergent stressors. In sight of the above, a study was conducted to evaluate the effect of Indian instrumental music-based environmental enrichment played in yaman raga on milk production performance and behaviour in cattle. A total of 21 lactating dairy cattle (Vrindavani crossbred cows) having similar parity and stage of lactation were selected in three groups - T1, T2 and T3, each consisting of seven animals. The T1 and T2 groups were exposed to instrumental flute and sitar, respectively, 10 min prior to the start of milking and continued till completion of milking; while the T3 group served as control. Musical enrichment of the environment was done using recorded-tape of flute and sitar was played in yamen raga at 40-60 (dB) decibel intensity. The results revealed a non-significant difference in milk yield, rectal temperature, respiration rate, T3 (triiodothyronine) and T4 (thyroxine) hormones. However, there exhibited a significant (p < 0.05) difference in milking time, milking speed, cortisol hormones and behavioural parameters such as milk let-down in the animals exposed to music compared to the control group. Thus, the results have significant implications relating to the behavioural fitness and welfare of dairy animals and reducing residual milk.

A Comparison of Two Modes of Dairy Farming Intensification and the Impact on Water Quality in Ohio, USA

Two different modes of dairy farming intensification in two adjacent sub-watersheds in the headwaters of the South Fork of Sugar Creek in Ohio, USA, are compared with the potential sustainability consequences in connection to landscape structure and patterns as they impact water quality. A survey was administered between 2005 and 2007 in the southern part of the Sugar Creek watershed where we interviewed 28 Amish and non-Amish farmers. We collected data at the field level on farms totaling 3422 ha to characterize intensifications in production under divergent management strategies and to assess the collective implications for the environmental impacts. In addition, water quality was monitored bi-weekly from 2010–2018 using nutrient concentrations at the sub-watershed outlets and in 1998 and 2017 using instream habitat and biological assessments across both sub-watersheds. The main result was that, despite contrasting farming and cropping systems (small versus large farms, animal grazing versus feed), both Amish and non-Amish dairy operations had increased the number of cows and milk per cow on their farms with similar organic nutrient production by animals per hectare farmed. Equally, surface water quality assessed through our monitoring program was similar with both systems showing decreasing nutrient enrichment and increased habitat quality. Interestingly, these equivalent intensifications and environmental impacts were realized despite contrasting demographics and land use patterns found when comparing Amish and non-Amish operations. Collectively, these results illustrate the need to include socio-cultural dimensions to truly capture the trajectory of development as it pertains to the intersection of sustainability and intensification—especially since the complexity of interactions occurring can potentially mask impacts relative to sustainable water resources management.

The role of dairy in healthy and sustainable food systems: community voices from India

Background

Managing the role of dairy foods in healthy and sustainable food systems is challenging. Milk production is associated with greenhouse gas emissions and milk-based processed foods can be high in fat, sugar and salt; yet, milk production provides income generating opportunities for farmers and dairy foods provide essential nutrients to young children, with a cultural significance in many communities. This is particularly relevant to India, the world’s largest producer of milk. The aim of this study was to use Photovoice, a participatory research method, to explore the experiences and perceptions of communities in India on the role of dairy products in local sustainable and healthy food systems.

Methods

Purposive sampling recruited two women’s self-help groups in Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh: one in a rural area and one in an urban area. A total of 31 participants (10–17 urban group and 12–14 rural group), produced photographs with captions to represent their views on how dairy was produced, sold, and consumed in their community. A discussion workshop was held in each area, with prompts to consider health and the environment. Workshop transcripts, photographs and captions were analysed qualitatively using thematic analysis.

Results

A range of experiences and perceptions were discussed by the two women’s self help groups. Participants had an awareness of their local food system and how stages of dairy food supply chains were non-linear and inherently interconnected. Three main themes were identified: 1) Quality and value matters to producers and consumers; 2) The need to adapt to sustain dairy farmer livelihoods in water scarce areas; 3) It’s not only about health.

Conclusions

Moderate milk-producing states such as Andhra Pradesh will continue to develop their dairy industry through policy actions. Including communities in policy discussions through innovative methods like Photovoice can help to maximise the positive and minimise the negative role of dairy in evolving local food systems.

How Farmers Conceive and Cope with Megatrends: The Case of Finnish Dairy Farmers

Megatrends (urbanization, digitalization, globalization, climate change, etc.) are mainstream developments that affect most economic activities. These megatrends have varying incidences and impacts on individual entrepreneurs and enterprises, also in farming sector. A farmer can either ignore or try to adapt to or benefit from megatrends. This reaction depends on many things: individuals’ futures orientation, management practices, business strategy, sunk costs, the life cycle and type of business, for example. The study explores the association between eight common megatrends and business strategies among a sample of Finnish dairy producers. The analysis is based on survey data from the year 2019 (n = 135) collected among a major Finnish dairy industry co-operative’s contract producers. The respondents evaluated the expected impact of the megatrends on their own business within the next 10 years with 5-point Likert-type scale (−2 … +2). K-means cluster analysis was utilized to uncover a few basic settings in the association between megatrends and farmers behaviours. After trying out several numbers of clusters, a distinctive three cluster solution was found. Additionally, cluster member profiles were framed with farmers’ Likert -scale responses. The analysis indicates that dairy farmers differ in their observation of megatrends. The results confirm that some of the farmers more or less ignore the common megatrends, whereas some other farmers adapt to or benefit from the common megatrends. Supporting farmers’ futures consciousness will strengthen their capacities of coping in the changing business environment.

How do dairy farmers communicate with the government? A case study in northwest of Spain

With the aim of assessing the farmers’ situation in terms of the use of ICT (Information and Communication Technologies) and their relationship with the e-government (electronic government), a case study consisting of 34 face-to-face surveys between February and March 2020 in dairy farms in the region of Galicia (Spain) was conducted. From the census, we chose those farms considered most representative taking into account the following criteria: the level of CAP (Common Agricultural Policy) and the production of milk (litres / cow and year). The results show that, in spite of the fact that a vast majority of the users use the web tools of the Public Administration, there are many users who find problems related to the agility and ease of use of these tools, especially when compared with private APPs which they also use daily in connection to their farms. Our research delves into those farmers who do not use the internet and the alternative methods which they employ. The telephone helpline is particularly important, as it is the favourite method of smaller farms.

Over 20 Years of Machine Learning Applications on Dairy Farms: A Comprehensive Mapping Study

Machine learning applications are becoming more ubiquitous in dairy farming decision support applications in areas such as feeding, animal husbandry, healthcare, animal behavior, milking and resource management. Thus, the objective of this mapping study was to collate and assess studies published in journals and conference proceedings between 1999 and 2021, which applied machine learning algorithms to dairy farming-related problems to identify trends in the geographical origins of data, as well as the algorithms, features and evaluation metrics and methods used. This mapping study was carried out in line with PRISMA guidelines, with six pre-defined research questions (RQ) and a broad and unbiased search strategy that explored five databases. In total, 129 publications passed the pre-defined selection criteria, from which relevant data required to answer each RQ were extracted and analyzed. This study found that Europe (43% of studies) produced the largest number of publications (RQ1), while the largest number of articles were published in the Computers and Electronics in Agriculture journal (21%) (RQ2). The largest number of studies addressed problems related to the physiology and health of dairy cows (32%) (RQ3), while the most frequently employed feature data were derived from sensors (48%) (RQ4). The largest number of studies employed tree-based algorithms (54%) (RQ5), while RMSE (56%) (regression) and accuracy (77%) (classification) were the most frequently employed metrics used, and hold-out cross-validation (39%) was the most frequently employed evaluation method (RQ6). Since 2018, there has been more than a sevenfold increase in the number of studies that focused on the physiology and health of dairy cows, compared to almost a threefold increase in the overall number of publications, suggesting an increased focus on this subdomain. In addition, a fivefold increase in the number of publications that employed neural network algorithms was identified since 2018, in comparison to a threefold increase in the use of both tree-based algorithms and statistical regression algorithms, suggesting an increasing utilization of neural network-based algorithms.

Examining the Environmental Impacts of the Dairy and Baby Food Industries: Are First-Food Systems a Crucial Missing Part of the Healthy and Sustainable Food Systems Agenda Now Underway?

Food systems are increasingly being understood as driving various health and ecological crises and their transformation is recognised as a key opportunity for planetary health. First-food systems represent an underexplored aspect of this transformation. Despite breastfeeding representing the optimal source of infant nutrition, use of commercial milk formula (CMF) is high and growing rapidly. In this review, we examine the impact of CMF use on planetary health, considering in particular its effects on climate change, water use and pollution and the consequences of these effects for human health. Milk is the main ingredient in the production of CMF, making the role of the dairy sector a key area of attention. We find that CMF use has twice the carbon footprint of breastfeeding, while 1 kg of CMF has a blue water footprint of 699 L; CMF has a significant and harmful environmental impact. Facilitation and protection of breastfeeding represents a key part of developing sustainable first-food systems and has huge potential benefits for maternal and child health.

Milking system and premilking routines have strong effect on the microbial community in bulk tank milk

In this study, we investigated the variation in the microbial community present in bulk tank milk samples and the potential effect of different farm management factors. Bulk tank milk samples were collected repeatedly over one year from 42 farms located in northern Sweden. Total and thermoresistant bacteria counts and 16S rRNA gene-based amplicon sequencing were used to characterize microbial community composition. The microbial community was in general heterogeneous both within and between different farms and the community composition in the bulk tank milk was commonly dominated by Pseudomonas, Acinetobacter, Streptococcus, unclassified Peptostreptococcaceae, and Staphylococcus. Principal component analysis including farm factor variables and microbial taxa data revealed that the microbial community in milk was affected by type of milking system. Milk from farms using an automatic (robot) milking system (AMS) and loose housing showed different microbial community composition compared with milk from tiestall farms. A discriminant analysis model revealed that this difference was dependent on several microbial taxa. Among farms using an automatic milking system, there were further differences in the microbial community composition depending on the brand of the milking robot used. On tiestall farms, routines for teat preparation and cleaning of the milking equipment affected the microbial community composition in milk. Total bacteria count (TBC) in milk differed between the farm types, and TBC were higher on AMS than tiestall farms (log 4.05 vs. log 3.79 TBC/mL for AMS and tiestalls, respectively). Among tiestall farms, milk from farms using a chemical agent in connection to teat preparation and a more frequent use of acid to clean the milking equipment had lower TBC in milk, than milk from farms using water for teat preparation and a less frequent use of acid to clean the milking equipment (log 3.68 vs. 4.02 TBC/mL). There were no significant differences in the number of thermoresistant bacteria between farm types. The evaluated factors explained only a small proportion of total variation in the microbiota data, however, despite this, the study highlights the effect of routines associated with teat preparation and cleaning of the milking equipment on raw milk microbiota, irrespective of type of milking system used.

Food Systems Transformation for Child Health and Well-Being: The Essential Role of Dairy

Malnutrition, in all its forms, during the critical stages of child growth and development can have lifelong impacts on health and well-being. While most forms of malnutrition can be prevented with simple dietary interventions, both undernutrition and overnutrition remain persistent and burdensome challenges for large portions of the global population, especially for young children who are dependent on others for nourishment. In addition to dietary factors, children's health also faces the growing challenges of climate change, environmental degradation, pollution, and infectious disease. Food production and consumption practices both sit at the nexus of these issues, and both must be significantly transformed if we are to achieve the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals. Food sources (i.e., animal-source foods vs. plant-source foods), food production practices, the effects of food processing, the impacts of a more globalized food system, and food loss and waste have all been receiving growing attention in health and sustainability research and policy discussions. Much of this work points to recommendations to reduce resource-intensive animal-source foods, heavily processed foods, and foods associated with excessive waste and pollution, while simultaneously increasing plant-source options. However, some of these recommendations require a little more nuance when considered in the context of issues such as global child health. All types of foods can play significant roles in providing essential nutrition for children across the globe, and for improving the well-being and livelihoods of their families and communities. Dairy foods provide a prime example of this need for nuance, as both dairy production practices and consumption patterns vary greatly throughout the world, as do their impacts on child health and food system sustainability. The objective of this narrative review is to highlight the role of dairy in supporting child health in the context of food system sustainability. When considering child health within this context it is recommended to take a holistic approach that considers all four domains of sustainability (health, economics, society, and the environment) to better weigh trade-offs, optimize outcomes, and avoid unintended consequences. To ensure that children have access to nutritious and safe foods within sustainable food systems, special consideration of their needs must be included within the broader food systems transformation narrative.

In Vitro and In Vivo Evaluation of the Effects of a Compound Based on Plants, Yeast and Trace Elements on the Ruminal Function of Dairy Cows

The high production levels reached by the dairy sector need adjustment in nutritional inputs and efficient feed conversion. In this context, we evaluated a compound (QY—Qualix Yellow) combining optimized inputs in trace elements and 20% MIX 3.0. In a first step, the effects of MIX 3.0 on ruminal function were assessed in vitro by incubating ruminal fluid with the mixture at a ratio of 20:1. The results obtained encouraged us to test QY in vivo, on a herd of dairy cows. The herd was divided into one group of 19 dairy cows receiving the compound and a control group of 20 animals conducted in the same conditions, but which did not received the compound; the production performance and feed efficiency of the two groups were compared. In vitro experiments showed improved digestion of acid and neutral detergent fibres by 10%. The propionate production was enhanced by 14.5% after 6 h incubation with MIX 3.0. The plant mixture decreased the production of methane and ammonia by 37% and 52%, respectively, and reduced the number of protozoa by 50%. An increase in milk yield by 2.4 kg/cow/d (p < 0.1), combined with a decrease in concentrate consumption of 0.27 kg DM/cow/d (p < 0.001), was observed in vivo after consumption of the compound. Sixty-six days after the beginning of the trial, methane emissions per kg of milk were significantly lower in the group receiving QY. In conclusion, MIX 3.0 induced change in ruminal function in vitro and, when it entered into the composition of the QY, it appeared to improve feed efficiency and production performance in vivo.

Understanding transitions in farming systems and their effects on livestock rearing and smallholder livelihoods in Telangana, India

Increasing food demands are causing rapid transitions in farming systems, often involving intensified land and resource use. While transitioning has benefits regarding poverty alleviation and food outputs, it also causes environmental and social issues over time. This study aims to understand the transitions in farming systems in a region in Telangana, from 1997 to 2015, and their effect on livestock rearing and smallholder livelihoods. We also examine the impact of the transitions on lower caste groups and women in particular. We collected data using a combination of methods, i.e., a household survey, focus group discussions, and secondary data sources, to build a comprehensive picture of the transitions in the region. We found that subsistence mixed farming systems transitioned to market-orientated specialized systems over a short time span. As the transition process gained momentum, households either intensified their production or got marginalized. Technological interventions, development programs with integrated approaches, and market demand for certain agricultural produce triggered increased regional production but also led to the scarcity of water, land, and labor. The transitions marginalized some of the households, changed the role of livestock in farming, and have been inclusive of both lower caste groups and women in terms of increased ownership of large ruminants and access to technologies. However, for women specifically, further increase in workload in the context of farming is also found.

The Effect of Different Concentrations of Total Polyphenols from Paulownia Hybrid Leaves on Ruminal Fermentation, Methane Production and Microorganisms

This experiment was conducted to study the effects of different concentrations of polyphenols of Paulownia Clon In Vitro 112^® leaves or their particular parts on in vitro ruminal fermentation, methane production and microbial population. Paulownia leaves with high (PLH; 31.35 mg/g dry matter (DM)), medium (PLM; 26.94 mg/g DM), and low level of polyphenols (PLL; 11.90 mg/g DM) were used from three plantation areas. Lamina (PLLA; 33.63 mg/g DM) and twigs (PLT; 2.53 mg/g DM) of leaves were also collected from the PLM plantation. The chemical analyses of Paulownia leaves indicated that the content of the most basic nutrients (e.g., crude protein concentration of 185 g/kg of DM) were similar to dehydrated alfalfa. The in vitro results showed that the use of Paulownia leaves with the highest content of total polyphenols (PLH and PLLA) decreased methane production, methanogens numbers, and acetate to propionate ratio. In PLT, lowered methane production was followed by reduced substrate degradability and volatile fatty acid (VFA) concentration along with higher acetate to propionate ratio. Therefore, reduction of methane production in PLH and PLLA was attributed to the lowered methanogen population, whereas in PLT it was caused by decreased substrate degradability with the resultant of limited hydrogen availability to the methanogens.

Graduate Student Literature Review: Current understanding of the influence of on-farm factors on bovine raw milk and its suitability for cheesemaking

Relationships between dairy farm practices, the composition and properties of raw milk, and the quality of the resulting cheese are complex. In this review, we assess the effect of farm factors on the quality of bovine raw milk intended for cheesemaking. The literature reports several prominent farm-related factors that are closely associated with milk quality characteristics. We describe their effects on the composition and technological properties of raw milk and on the quality of the resulting cheese. Cow breed, composite genotype, and protein polymorphism all have noticeable effects on milk coagulation, cheese yield, and cheese composition. Feed and feeding strategy, dietary supplementation, housing and milking system, and seasonality of milk production also influence the composition and properties of raw milk, and the resulting cheese. The microbiota in raw milk is influenced by on-farm factors and by the production environment, and may influence the technological properties of the milk and the sensory profile of certain cheese types. Advances in research dealing with the technological properties of raw milk have undoubtedly improved understanding of how on-farm factors affect milk quality attributes, and have refuted the concept of one milk for all purposes. The specific conditions for milk production should be considered when the milk is intended for the production of cheese with unique characteristics. The scientific identification of these conditions would improve the current understanding of the complex associations between raw milk quality and farm and management factors. Future research that considers dairy landscapes within broader perspectives and develops multidimensional approaches to control the quality of raw milk intended for long-ripening cheese production is recommended.

The Whole and the Parts—A New Perspective on Production Diseases and Economic Sustainability in Dairy Farming

The levels of production diseases (PD) and the cow replacement rate are high in dairy farming. They indicate excessive production demands on the cow and a poor state of animal welfare. This is the subject of increasing public debate. The purpose of this study was to assess the effect of production diseases on the economic sustainability of dairy farms. The contributions of individual culled cows to the farm’s economic performance were calculated, based on milk recording and accounting data from 32 farms in Germany. Cows were identified as ‘profit cows’ when they reached their individual ‘break-even point’. Data from milk recordings (yield and indicators for PD) were used to cluster farms by means of a principal component and a cluster analysis. The analysis revealed five clusters of farms. The average proportion of profit cows was 57.5%, 55.6%, 44.1%, 29.4% and 19.5%. Clusters characterized by a high proportion of cows with metabolic problems and high culling and mortality rates had lower proportions of profit cows, somewhat irrespective of the average milk-yield per cow. Changing the perception of PD from considering it as collateral damage to a threat to the farms’ economic viability might foster change processes to reduce production diseases.

Factors Affecting e-Government Adoption by Dairy Farmers: A Case Study in the North-West of Spain

With the objective of assessing the farmers’ situation regarding the use of the ICT and their relations with the electronic government, a case study consisting in the realization of 34 face-to-face surveys was conducted between February and March 2020 in dairy farms in the region of Galicia (Spain). The sample was selected according to one of the most important online journals in the farming sector at a national level. From the census, we chose those farms considered most representative taking into account the main criteria: the level of PAC (Common Agrarian Politics) subsidies and milk production (litres/cow and year). The results show that the majority of the farmers used the internet, but on many an occasion, they were discontented in relation to the poor connection quality in their farms. In regard to the use of the electronic government for procedures related to their farms, many of them were able to perform them through the government website; however, there were procedures which the users defined as “complex” and which had to be outsourced to authorised entities. The results also show that the farmers do want to employ the e-government, mainly because of the time and cost saving; however, the current web pages do not meet the users’ expectations. Finally, this situation, applied to a region placed among the 10 most productive regions of milk, is comparable to what happens in other regions.

The antimicrobial landscape as outlined by Danish dairy farmers

Limiting antimicrobial use (AMU) in dairy farming is an important step toward reducing antimicrobial resistance (AMR). Therefore, it is relevant to understand dairy farmers' choices and the potential for change in relation to AMU, even in countries with low usage. Furthermore, there is an increasing recognition of the need to focus on both the individual farmer's behavior as well as the context surrounding and influencing the farmer's decisions in relation to AMU if the goal is further reduction. To date, no studies have taken into account both the individual farmer and their context in both conventional and organic dairy farms under Danish conditions. For this study, 15 Danish dairy farmers were interviewed using qualitative semi-structured research interviews, and the notion of landscape was used to describe the context of their AMU. We found that AMR was considered a distant element of the farmers' antimicrobial landscape. Daily challenges such as acutely diseased animals and poor housing conditions seemed more urgent and overruled the threat of AMR. We also found that interviewed farmers had differing opinions on farm management, partly shaped by changes in legislation and ways of farming over time. At one end of the scale, some organic farmers had rethought the current way of farming; keeping robust animals in a natural setting was expected to prevent disease. They were positive about legislation, and the numerous restrictions on AMU over time were thought to contribute to ensuring quality for consumers. At the other end of the scale, some conventional farmers perceived disease as something that should be controlled through treatment, and the currently eased legislation and intensification of farming have legitimatized AMU for this purpose, leading to an expectation among these farmers of certain rights to handle medicines themselves. These contrasting views might lead to inspiration and competition in terms of reducing AMU, as the farmers appeared to value the opinions of other farmers, and they were found to continuously assess each other. Through such ongoing assessment, pioneers of AMU reduction-whether organic or conventional-might motivate their colleagues to change their AMU. Future research should address the potential of experience- and attitude-sharing among farmers as motivation to reduce AMU.

Review: Genetic selection of high-yielding dairy cattle toward sustainable farming systems in a rapidly changing world

The massive improvement in food production, as a result of effective genetic selection combined with advancements in farming practices, has been one of the greatest achievements of modern agriculture. For instance, the dairy cattle industry has more than doubled milk production over the past five decades, while the total number of cows has been reduced dramatically. This was achieved mainly through the intensification of production systems, direct genetic selection for milk yield and a limited number of related traits, and the use of modern technologies (e.g., artificial insemination and genomic selection). Despite the great betterment in production efficiency, strong drawbacks have occurred along the way. First, across-breed genetic diversity reduced dramatically, with the worldwide use of few common dairy breeds, as well as a substantial reduction in within-breed genetic diversity. Intensive selection for milk yield has also resulted in unfavorable genetic responses for traits related to fertility, health, longevity, and environmental sensitivity. Moving forward, the dairy industry needs to continue refining the current selection indexes and breeding goals to put greater emphasis on traits related to animal welfare, health, longevity, environmental efficiency (e.g., methane emission and feed efficiency), and overall resilience. This needs to be done through the definition of criteria (traits) that (a) represent well the biological mechanisms underlying the respective phenotypes, (b) are heritable, and (c) can be cost-effectively measured in a large number of animals and as early in life as possible. The long-term sustainability of the dairy cattle industry will also require diversification of production systems, with greater investments in the development of genetic resources that are resilient to perturbations occurring in specific farming systems with lesser control over the environment (e.g., organic, agroecological, and pasture-based, mountain-grazing farming systems). The conservation, genetic improvement, and use of local breeds should be integrated into the modern dairy cattle industry and greater care should be taken to avoid further genetic diversity losses in dairy cattle populations. In this review, we acknowledge the genetic progress achieved in high-yielding dairy cattle, closely related to dairy farm intensification, that reaches its limits. We discuss key points that need to be addressed toward the development of a robust and long-term sustainable dairy industry that maximize animal welfare (fundamental needs of individual animals and positive welfare) and productive efficiency, while also minimizing the environmental footprint, inputs required, and sensitivity to external factors.

Variation in Dairy Milk Composition and Properties Has Little Impact on Cheese Ripening: Insights from a Traditional Swedish Long-Ripening Cheese

The monthly variation in raw dairy silo milk was investigated and related to the ripening time of the resulting cheese during an industrial cheese-making trial. Milk composition varied with month, fat and protein content being lowest in August (4.19 and 3.44 g/100 g, respectively). Casein micelle size was largest (192–200 nm) in December–February and smallest (80 nm) in August. In addition, SCC, total bacteria count, proteolytic activities, gel strength, and milk fatty acid composition were significantly varied with month. Overall sensory and texture scores of resulting cheese were mainly influenced by plasmin and plasminogen activity, indicating the importance of native proteolytic systems. Recently, concepts based on the differentiated use of milk in dairy products have been suggested. For the investigated cheese type, there might be little to gain from such an approach. The variation in the investigated quality characteristics of the dairy milk used for cheese making had little effect on cheese ripening in our study. In contrast to our hypothesis, we conclude that as long as the quality of the milk meets certain minimum criteria, there are only weak associations between cheese milk characteristics and the time required for the development of aroma and texture in the cheese. To find answers behind the observed variation in cheese ripening time, studies on the effects of process parameters are needed.

Effect of low and high concentrate supplementation on health and welfare indicators in different breeds in small-scale mountain dairy farms

We investigated and compared the effects of low and high concentrate supplementation in terms of animal welfare, health and reproductive performance in two different dairy cow breeds on small-scale mountain farms. 64 South Tyrolean dairy farms were evaluated using an on-farm assessment for animal-based and resource-based welfare indicators, data from test day records, and a questionnaire for the farmer. Farms were divided into four groups: low input Tyrolean Grey (L-TG), low input Brown Swiss (L-BS), high input Tyrolean Grey (H-TG) and high input Brown Swiss (H-BS). Effects of intensity level, breed and their interaction were calculated and analyzed statistically. The predominant husbandry system across all groups was tie-stall. The average energy-corrected milk yield increased with increasing concentrate level, with L-TG showing the lowest and H-BS showing the highest milk yield. Age at first calving was lowest in H-BS when compared to all other systems, while numbers of lactations were higher in L-TG compared to H-BS. Feed efficiency (percentage of milk out of roughage) was significantly higher in L-TG and L-BS when compared to H-TG and H-BS. L-BS showed the poorest results for most of the welfare indicators such as lean cows, lesions and percentage of dirty animals. In conclusion, a higher concentrate level in diets does not lead automatically to lower animal welfare for dairy cows in alpine regions. Indeed, keeping high yielding breeds in extensive systems seems to be challenging. The dual-purpose breed TG showed some clear advantages in that calving interval was lower and the number of lactations greater.

Evaluating Three-Pillar Sustainability Modelling Approaches for Dairy Cattle Production Systems

Milk production in Europe is facing major challenges to ensure its economic, environmental, and social sustainability. It is essential that holistic concepts are developed to ensure the future sustainability of the sector and to assist farmers and stakeholders in making knowledge-based decisions. In this study, integrated sustainability assessment by means of whole-farm modelling is presented as a valuable approach for identifying factors and mechanisms that could be used to improve the three pillars (3Ps) of sustainability in the context of an increasing awareness of economic profitability, social well-being, and environmental impacts of dairy production systems (DPS). This work aims (i) to create an evaluation framework that enables quantitative analysis of the level of integration of 3P sustainability indicators in whole-farm models and (ii) to test this method. Therefore, an evaluation framework consisting of 35 indicators distributed across the 3Ps of sustainability was used to evaluate three whole-farm models. Overall, the models integrated at least 40% of the proposed indicators. Different results were obtained for each sustainability pillar by each evaluated model. Higher scores were obtained for the environmental pillar, followed by the economic and the social pillars. In conclusion, this evaluation framework was found to be an effective tool that allows potential users to choose among whole-farm models depending on their needs. Pathways for further model development that may be used to integrate the 3P sustainability assessment of DPS in a more complete and detailed way were identified.