Insights into the Basal Activity and Activation Mechanism of the β1 Adrenergic Receptor Using Native Mass Spectrometry

Mapping of β3-Adrenergic Receptor in Living Cells with a Ligand-Guided Fluorescent Probe

Tracking the dynamic distribution of native proteins in living cells or tissues in real time is essential for understanding the functional mechanisms involved in their physiological or pathological processes. The β3-adrenergic receptor (β3-AR) has important biological functions. It is expected to be a diagnostic indicator for aging, yet current probes for β-ARs are unable to dynamically monitor β3-AR in real time, which impedes the progress of β3-AR research. Here, we developed a ligand-directed anchoring probe, β3-ARP, that precisely covalently anchors with native β3-AR in living cells, for the diagnosis of senescence. The ligand-directed anchoring probe selectively recognizes and traces β3-AR and can achieve dynamic observation and monitoring of β3-AR in living cells, including the interaction between lipid droplets and mitochondria. Moreover, we were able to directly probe the distribution of β3-AR in various organs of aging mice in situ and track the location of native β3-AR in different types of primary neuronal cells using β3-ARP and two-photon imaging, which revealed the aberrant accumulation of lipid droplets and the distribution of β3-AR in neurological diseases. This research has resulted in a new covalently anchoring fluorescent probe, β3-ARP, which could serve as a powerful tool to explore the link between β3-AR and age-related diseases.

Genetic and Functional Studies of Patients with Thyroid Dyshormonogenesis and Defects in the TSH Receptor (TSHR)

Genetic defects in the TSH receptor (TSHR) can cause poor thyroid differentiation (thyroid dysgenesis) and/or thyroid malfunction (thyroid dyshormonogenesis). The phenotype spectrum is wide: from severe congenital hypothyroidism to mild hyperthyrotropinemia. Over 250 TSHR variants have been published, many uncharacterized in vitro. We aimed to genetically characterize patients with thyroid dyshormonogenesis with TSHR defects and to study in vitro the effect of the genetic variants to establish the genotype-phenotype relationship. Pediatric patients with thyroid dyshormonogenesis (160 patients, Catalan CH neonatal screening program, confirmation TSH range: 18.4-100 mIU/L), were analyzed by a high-throughput gene panel. In vitro studies measuring the TSH-dependent cAMP-response-element activation were performed. Five patients with mild or severe thyroid dyshormonogenesis presented six TSHR variants, two unpublished. Each variant showed a different in vitro functional profile that was totally or partially deleterious. Depending on the genotype, some of the variants showed partial deficiency in both genotypes, whereas others presented a different effect. In conclusion, the percentage of patients with thyroid dyshormonogenesis and candidate variants in TSHR is 3.13%. Our in vitro studies contributed to the confirmation of the pathogenicity of the variants and highlighted the importance of studying the effect of the patient's genotype for a correct diagnostic confirmation.

Upregulation of fibronectin and its integrin receptors - an adaptation to isolation stress that facilitates tumor initiation

Tumor initiation at either primary or metastatic sites is an inefficient process in which tumor cells must fulfill a series of conditions. One critical condition involves the ability of individual tumor-initiating cells to overcome 'isolation stress', enabling them to survive within harsh isolating microenvironments that can feature nutrient stress, hypoxia, oxidative stress and the absence of a proper extracellular matrix (ECM). In response to isolation stress, tumor cells can exploit various adaptive strategies to develop stress tolerance and gain stemness features. In this Opinion, we discuss how strategies such as the induction of certain cell surface receptors and deposition of ECM proteins enable tumor cells to endure isolation stress, thereby gaining tumor-initiating potential. As examples, we highlight recent findings from our group demonstrating how exposure of tumor cells to isolation stress upregulates the G-protein-coupled receptor lysophosphatidic acid receptor 4 (LPAR4), its downstream target fibronectin and two fibronectin-binding integrins, α5β1 and αvβ3. These responses create a fibronectin-rich niche for tumor cells, ultimately driving stress tolerance, cancer stemness and tumor initiation. We suggest that approaches to prevent cancer cells from adapting to stress by suppressing LPAR4 induction, blocking its downstream signaling or disrupting fibronectin-integrin interactions hold promise as potential strategies for cancer treatment.

Evaluation of Drug Responses to Human β2AR Using Native Mass Spectrometry

We aimed to develop a platform to rapidly investigate the responses of agonists and antagonists to G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) using native mass spectrometry (MS). We successfully observed the ligand-bound human β₂ adrenergic receptor (hβ₂AR); however, it was challenging to quantitatively discuss drug efficacy from MS data alone. Since ligand-bound GPCRs are stabilized by the Gα subunit of G proteins on the membrane, mini-G_s and nanobody80 (Nb80) that can mimic the Gα interface of the GPCR were utilized. Ternary complexes of hβ₂AR, ligand, and mini-G_s or Nb80 were prepared and subjected to native MS. We found a strong correlation between the hβ₂AR-mini-G_s or -Nb80 complex ratio observed in the mass spectra and agonist/antagonist efficacy obtained using a cell-based assay. This method does not require radioisotope labeling and would be applicable to the analysis of other GPCRs, facilitating the characterization of candidate compounds as GPCR agonists and antagonists.

Comparative evaluation of biased agonists Sarcosine1 , d-Alanine8 -Angiotensin (Ang) II (SD Ang II) and Sarcosine1 , Isoleucine8 -Ang II (SI Ang II) and their radioiodinated congeners binding to rat liver membrane AT1 receptors

Angiotensin II analogue and β-arrestin biased agonist TRV027 (Sarcosine¹ , d-Alanine⁸ -Angiotensin (Ang) II; SD Ang II), developed by Trevena, Inc. in the early 2010s, brought hopes of a novel treatment for cardiovascular diseases, due to its ability to simultaneously cause signaling through the β-arrestin signaling pathway, while antagonizing the pathophysiological effects of Ang II mediated by the AT₁ receptor G protein signaling cascades. However, a phase II clinical trial of this agent revealed no significant benefit compared to placebo treatment. Using ¹²⁵ I-Sarcosine¹ , Isoleucine⁸ -Ang II (¹²⁵ I-SI Ang II) radioligand receptor competition binding assays, we assessed the relative affinity of TRV027 compared to SI Ang II for liver AT₁ receptors. We also compared radioiodinated TRV027 (¹²⁵ I-SD Ang II) binding affinity for liver AT₁ receptors with ¹²⁵ I-SI Ang II. We found that despite its anticipated gain in metabolic stability, TRV027 and ¹²⁵ I-SD Ang II had reduced affinity for the AT₁ receptor compared with SI Ang II and ¹²⁵ I-SI Ang II. Additionally, male-female comparisons showed that females have a higher AT₁ receptor density, potentially attributed to tissue-dependent estrogen and progesterone effects. Peptide drugs have become more popular over the years due to their increased bioavailability, fast onset of action, high specificity, and low toxicity. Even though Trevena®'s biased agonist peptide TRV027 offered greater stability and potency compared to earlier AT₁ R biased agonists, it failed its phase II clinical trial in 2016. Further refinements to AT₁ R biased agonist peptides to improve affinity, as seen with SI Ang II, with better stability and bioavailability, has the potential to achieve the anticipated biased agonism.

Mass spectrometry captures biased signalling and allosteric modulation of a G-protein-coupled receptor

G-protein-coupled receptors signal through cognate G proteins. Despite the widespread importance of these receptors, their regulatory mechanisms for G-protein selectivity are not fully understood. Here we present a native mass spectrometry-based approach to interrogate both biased signalling and allosteric modulation of the β1-adrenergic receptor in response to various ligands. By simultaneously capturing the effects of ligand binding and receptor coupling to different G proteins, we probed the relative importance of specific interactions with the receptor through systematic changes in 14 ligands, including isoprenaline derivatives, full and partial agonists, and antagonists. We observed enhanced dynamics of the intracellular loop 3 in the presence of isoprenaline, which is capable of acting as a biased agonist. We also show here that endogenous zinc ions augment the binding in receptor-Gs complexes and propose a zinc ion-binding hotspot at the TM5/TM6 intracellular interface of the receptor-Gs complex. Further interrogation led us to propose a mechanism in which zinc ions facilitate a structural transition of the intermediate complex towards the stable state.

High-Throughput Native Mass Spectrometry Screening in Drug Discovery

The design of new therapeutic molecules can be significantly informed by studying protein-ligand interactions using biophysical approaches directly after purification of the protein-ligand complex. Well-established techniques utilized in drug discovery include isothermal titration calorimetry, surface plasmon resonance, nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, and structure-based drug discovery which mainly rely on protein crystallography and, more recently, cryo-electron microscopy. Protein-ligand complexes are dynamic, heterogeneous, and challenging systems that are best studied with several complementary techniques. Native mass spectrometry (MS) is a versatile method used to study proteins and their non-covalently driven assemblies in a native-like folded state, providing information on binding thermodynamics and stoichiometry as well as insights on ternary and quaternary protein structure. Here, we discuss the basic principles of native mass spectrometry, the field's recent progress, how native MS is integrated into a drug discovery pipeline, and its future developments in drug discovery.

In a flash of light: X-ray free electron lasers meet native mass spectrometry

During the last years, X-ray free electron lasers (XFELs) have emerged as X-ray sources of unparalleled brightness, delivering extreme amounts of photons in femtosecond pulses. As such, they have opened up completely new possibilities in drug discovery and structural biology, including studying high resolution biomolecular structures and their functioning in a time resolved manner, and diffractive imaging of single particles without the need for their crystallization. In this perspective, we briefly review the operation of XFELs, their immediate uses for drug discovery and focus on the potentially revolutionary single particle diffractive imaging technique and the challenges which remain to be overcome to fully realize its potential to provide high resolution structures without the need for crystallization, freezing or the need to keep proteins stable at extreme concentrations for long periods of time. As the issues have been to a large extent sample delivery related, we outline a way for native mass spectrometry to overcome these and enable so far impossible research with a potentially huge impact on structural biology and drug discovery, such as studying structures of transient intermediate species in viral life cycles or during functioning of molecular machines.

Protein-Small Molecule Interactions in Native Mass Spectrometry

Small molecule drug discovery has been propelled by the continual development of novel scientific methodologies to occasion therapeutic advances. Although established biophysical methods can be used to obtain information regarding the molecular mechanisms underlying drug action, these approaches are often inefficient, low throughput, and ineffective in the analysis of heterogeneous systems including dynamic oligomeric assemblies and proteins that have undergone extensive post-translational modification. Native mass spectrometry can be used to probe protein-small molecule interactions with unprecedented speed and sensitivity, providing unique insights into polydisperse biomolecular systems that are commonly encountered during the drug discovery process. In this review, we describe potential and proven applications of native MS in the study of interactions between small, drug-like molecules and proteins, including large multiprotein complexes and membrane proteins. Approaches to quantify the thermodynamic and kinetic properties of ligand binding are discussed, alongside a summary of gas-phase ion activation techniques that have been used to interrogate the structure of protein-small molecule complexes. We additionally highlight some of the key areas in modern drug design for which native mass spectrometry has elicited significant advances. Future developments and applications of native mass spectrometry in drug discovery workflows are identified, including potential pathways toward studying protein-small molecule interactions on a whole-proteome scale.

High-Mass Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption/Ionization Mass Spectrometry for Absolute Quantitation of Noncovalent Protein-Protein Binding Interactions

Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry (MALDI-MS) is a robust and powerful tool for studying biomacromolecules and their interactions. However, quantitative detection of high-mass analytes (kDa to MDa range) remains challenging for MALDI-MS. Herein, we successfully used commercially available purified proteins (β-galactosidase and BSA) as internal standards for high-mass MALDI-MS analysis and achieved absolute quantification of several high-mass analytes. We systematically evaluated four sample deposition methods, and using the sandwich deposition method with saturated sinapinic acid as the top layer, we performed a robust quantitative analysis by high-mass MALDI-MS. Combined with chemical cross-linking, this quantitative strategy was further used to evaluate the affinity of protein-protein interactions (PPIs), specifically of two soluble protein receptors (interleukin 1 receptor and interleukin 2 receptor) and two membrane protein receptors (rhodopsin and angiotensin 2 receptor 1) with their interaction partners. The measured dissociation constants of the protein complexes formed were between 10 nM and 5 μM. We expect this high-throughput, rapid method, which does not require labeling or immobilization of any of the interaction partners, to become a viable alternative to traditional biophysical methods for studying PPIs.

Engineering of Challenging G Protein-Coupled Receptors for Structure Determination and Biophysical Studies

Membrane proteins such as G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) exert fundamental biological functions and are involved in a multitude of physiological responses, making these receptors ideal drug targets. Drug discovery programs targeting GPCRs have been greatly facilitated by the emergence of high-resolution structures and the resulting opportunities to identify new chemical entities through structure-based drug design. To enable the determination of high-resolution structures of GPCRs, most receptors have to be engineered to overcome intrinsic hurdles such as their poor stability and low expression levels. In recent years, multiple engineering approaches have been developed to specifically address the technical difficulties of working with GPCRs, which are now beginning to make more challenging receptors accessible to detailed studies. Importantly, successfully engineered GPCRs are not only valuable in X-ray crystallography, but further enable biophysical studies with nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, surface plasmon resonance, native mass spectrometry, and fluorescence anisotropy measurements, all of which are important for the detailed mechanistic understanding, which is the prerequisite for successful drug design. Here, we summarize engineering strategies based on directed evolution to reduce workload and enable biophysical experiments of particularly challenging GPCRs.