Carbohydrate Consumption and Periodization Strategies Applied to Elite Soccer Players

Influence of Carbohydrate Intake on Different Parameters of Soccer Players' Performance: Systematic Review

BACKGROUND

The objective of this systematic review is to analyze the influence of carbohydrate (CHO) intake on physical and technical aspects, glucose and muscle glycogen levels, fatigue, cognition, and gastrointestinal comfort involved in the performance of soccer players, as well as to examine whether there are any differences between men and women.

METHODS

A bibliographic search was conducted in PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, and SportDiscus, resulting in 61 selected articles. The PRISMA recommendations and the Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews guidelines were followed.

RESULTS

The results indicate that CHO intake before and during the match improves speed and the number of sprints, attenuates the decrease in shooting accuracy and speed, increases time to fatigue, and enhances cognitive function. There is no consensus on passing, dribbling, jumping, or agility improvements. Glucose levels drop during the first 15 min of the second half without affecting performance.

CONCLUSIONS

It is recommended that players ingest 6-8 g/kg/d of CHO the day before, a meal with 1-3 g/kg 3-4 h before, and 30-60 g/h during the match. Muscle glycogen drops drastically at the end of the match, remaining low at 48 h. Hence, 1-1.5 g/kg/h is recommended during the first 4 h, starting from the first 20 min. Female soccer players have a similar physical demand to men, and energy availability is low, especially in the post-match periods, as they underestimate their energy expenditure and do not consume enough CHO. Therefore, the recommended guidelines should be followed, individualized, and periodized according to each athlete's energy needs.

Improved physical performance of elite soccer players based on GPS results after 4 days of carbohydrate loading followed by 3 days of low carbohydrate diet

BACKGROUND

Carbohydrate loading is an established sports nutrition strategy for endur- 16 ance exercise performance. We tested if carbohydrate loading could improve the performance of 17 elite soccer players under ecologically valid circumstances using Global Positioning System (GPS) data.

METHODS

Twenty-two adult Iran Premier league soccer players were divided into a carbohydrate-loading group (CLG) and Control group (CG). The carbohydrate loading group restricted carbohydrate intake for three days to 1.5 g/kg/d while increasing exercise intensity. From days four to seven, exercise intensity was decreased and carbohydrate intake was considerably increased up to 7.5 g/kg/d on the day of the match, during which performance was analyzed using GPS data. The control group performed the same exercise training but maintained their habitual carbohydrate intake of 5-6 g/kg/d. The data were analyzed using a univariate ANCOVA with baseline data from a pre-intervention match as the control variable.

RESULTS

The carbohydrate loading team scored significantly higher on running distance, maximum speed and the number of top and repeated sprints; the carbohydrate loading group scored significantly lower on player load, metabolic power and running imbalance compared to the control team during their match.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest carbohydrate loading enabled elite soccer players to achieve greater running outputs with greater metabolic efficiency and lower fatigue compared to their habitual diets.

Under-Fuelling for the Work Required? Assessment of Dietary Practices and Physical Loading of Adolescent Female Soccer Players during an Intensive International Training and Game Schedule

Previous studies demonstrate that "under-fuelling" (i.e., reduced carbohydrate (CHO) and energy intake (EI) in relation to recommended guidelines) is prevalent within adult female soccer players, the consequence of which may have acute performance and chronic health implications. However, the dietary practices of adolescent female soccer players, a population who may be particularly at risk for the negative aspects of low energy availability (LEA), are not well documented. Accordingly, we aimed to quantify EI and CHO intake, physical loading and estimated energy availability (EA) in elite national team adolescent female soccer players (n = twenty-three; age, 17.9 ± 0.5 years) during a 10-day training and game schedule comprising two match days on day six (MDa) and nine (MDb). The players self-reported their EI via the remote food photography method, whilst the physical loading and associated exercise energy expenditure were assessed via GPS technology. The relative CHO intake was significantly greater (all p < 0.05) on the day before the first match (MD-1a) (4.1 ± 0.8 g·kg-1), on the day before the second match (MD-1b) (4.3 ± 1.1 g·kg-1), MDa (4.8 ± 1.2 g·kg-1) and MDb (4.8 ± 1.4 g·kg-1) in comparison to most other days (<4 g·kg-1). The mean daily measured EA over the 10-day period was 34 ± 12 kcal·kg FFM-1·day-1 (with six players, i.e., 34%, presenting LEA), though, when adjusting the energy intake for potential under-reporting, these values changed substantially (44 ± 14 kcal·kg FFM-1·day-1, only one player was classed as presenting LEA). Such data suggest that the prevalence of LEA amongst female team sport athletes may be over-estimated. Nonetheless, players are still likely under-fuelling for the work required in relation to the daily CHO recommendations (i.e., >6 g·kg-1) for intensive training and game schedules. These data provide further evidence for the requirement to create and deliver targeted player and stakeholder education and behaviour change interventions (especially for younger athletes) that aim to promote increased daily CHO intake in female soccer players.

Analysis of Recovery Methods' Efficacy Applied up to 72 Hours Postmatch in Professional Football: A Systematic Review With Graded Recommendations

BACKGROUND

Sleep, nutrition, active recovery, cold-water immersion, and massage were recently reported as the most used postmatch recovery methods in professional football. However, the recommendations concerning the effect of these methods remain unclear.

PURPOSE

To systematically review the literature regarding the effectiveness of the most common recovery methods applied to male and female football players (or other team sports) 72 hours postmatches and to provide graded recommendations for their use.

METHODS

A systematic search of the literature was performed, and the level of evidence of randomized and nonrandomized studies was classified as 1 or 2, respectively, with additional ++, +, and - classification according to the quality of the study and risk of bias. Graded recommendations were provided regarding the effectiveness of recovery methods for physical, physiological, and perceptive variables.

RESULTS

From the 3472 articles identified, 39 met the inclusion criteria for analysis. The studies' levels of evidence varied among methods (sleep: 2+ to 1++; nutrition: 2- to 1+; cold-water immersion: 2- to 1++; active recovery: 2- to 1+; and massage: 1- to 1+). Different graded recommendations were attributed, and none of them favored the effective use of recovery methods for physiological and physical parameters, whereas massage and cold-water immersion were recommended as beneficial for perceptive variables.

CONCLUSIONS

Cold-water immersion and massage can be recommended to recover up to 72 hours postmatch at a perceptive level. However, there is a current need for high-quality research that identifies effective recovery strategies that enhance recovery at the physical and physiological levels.

Postmatch Recovery Practices Carried Out in Professional Football: A Survey of 56 Portuguese Professional Football Teams

BACKGROUND

In football (ie, soccer), the effectiveness of recovery practices is critical to maintain high levels of performance, prevent residual fatigue, and reduce injury risk. However, the recovery methods that professional football teams put in place up to 72 hours postmatch are widely unknown.

PURPOSE

This study aimed to characterize the postmatch recovery practices in Portuguese football teams in different postmatch periods and match locations.

METHODS

Portuguese football teams (total, N = 56; male: first league [n = 17], second league [n = 16], under-23 league [n = 12]; female: first league, n = 11) participated in the study. The practitioners in charge of recovery strategies in each team filled out the online questionnaire in the middle of the 2019-20 season. The questions focused on the type of recovery methods to be used at different times after home and away matches.

RESULTS

After home matches, stretching, electrostimulation, active recovery, and massage were used with higher frequency (P < .017) in later postmatch periods (ie, 12-24, and 24-72 h) compared with immediately postmatch. After away matches, several differences were found (P < .017) for the stretching, electrostimulation, active recovery, cold-water immersion, massage, nutrition, and sleep between postmatch periods. Regarding match location, stretching (r = .19), active recovery (r = .39), cold-water immersion (r = .46), and massage (r = .29) showed a higher frequency of use immediately after home matches. Conversely, the use of compression garments (r = .27) was higher immediately after away matches.

CONCLUSIONS

It was concluded that in professional football, recovery methods are not applied uniformly along postmatch periods and differ depending on the match location.

A Glimpse of the Sports Nutrition Awareness in Spanish Basketball Players

Basketball is a team sport, with many fans and practitioners worldwide from all ages and levels. In all cases, players accumulate high levels of fatigue, and there is also limited time to recover between games or practices. In particular, nutrition plays a key role in optimizing performance and recovery. However, it is typical to observe erroneous nutritional behaviors among basketball players. It has been theorized that these behaviors are influenced by habits acquired based on the individual’s knowledge. Therefore, the main aim of this study was to conduct a descriptive research of the sports nutrition knowledge and practices in a sample of Spanish basketball players, from athletes under 18 years old (n = 69) to nonprofessional (n = 14) and professional adult players (n = 21). The sample was comprised of 49 men and 55 women. This was a transversal, cross-sectional, observational and descriptive study. All participants (n = 104) completed an anonymous online survey in order to analyze their sports nutrition knowledge and practices. In view of the obtained results, we can conclude that the knowledge of sport-specific nutrition in players under 18 years old, as well as non-professional and professional adult basketball players, is insufficient through all the categories and levels. The lack of professional support and time management difficulties were identified as some of the main barriers.

Nutritional optimization for female elite football players-topical review

Women's football is an intermittent sport characterized by frequent intense actions throughout the match. The high number of matches with limited recovery time played across a long competitive season underlines the importance of nutritional strategies to meet these large physical demands. In order to maximize sport performance and maintain good health, energy intake must be optimal. However, a considerable proportion of female elite football players does not have sufficient energy intake to match the energy expenditure, resulting in low energy availability that might have detrimental physiologic consequences and impair performance. Carbohydrates appear to be the primary fuel covering the total energy supply during match-play, and female elite football players should aim to consume sufficient carbohydrates to meet the requirements of their training program and to optimize the replenishment of muscle glycogen stores between training bouts and matches. However, several macro- and micronutrients are important for ensuring sufficient energy and nutrients for performance optimization and for overall health status in female elite football players. The inadequacy of macro-and micronutrients in the diet of these athletes may impair performance and training adaptations, and increase the risk of health disorders, compromising the player's professional career. In this topical review, we present knowledge and relevant nutritional recommendations for elite female football players for the benefit of sports nutritionists, dietitians, sports scientists, healthcare specialists, and applied researchers. We focus on dietary intake and cover the most pertinent topics in sports nutrition for the relevant physical demands in female elite football players as follows: energy intake, macronutrient and micronutrient requirements and optimal composition of the everyday diet, nutritional and hydration strategies to optimize performance and recovery, potential ergogenic effects of authorized relevant supplements, and future research considerations.

Comparison of Energy Expenditure Observed between Scheduled Activities in Collegiate Team-Sport Female Athletes

Energy needs of female team-sport athletes are poorly understood with no evidence highlighting differences present between scheduled activities. The purpose of this study was to examine the difference in energy expenditure between NCAA Division II female basketball (BBALL) and lacrosse (LAX) athletes during different scheduled team activities. Female BBALL (n = 13; 19.8 ± 1.3 yrs; 173.9 ± 13.6 cm; 74.6 ± 9.1kg; 27.1 ± 3.2%fat) and LAX (n = 20; 20.4 ± 1.8yrs; 168.4 ± 6.6cm; 68.8 ± 8.9kg; 27.9 ± 3.1%fat) athletes were outfitted with heart rate and activity monitors during four consecutive days on five different occasions (20 days total) across an entire academic year to assess differences in total daily activity energy expenditure (TDEE), activity energy expenditure (AEE), and physical activity level (PAL). Data were categorized by type of scheduled daily activities: Practice, Game, Conditioning, or Off. Independent of day type, TDEE, AEE, and PAL levels were greater (p < 0.05) in BBALL athletes. For each sport, TDEE, AEE, and PAL were significantly different (p < 0.05) between classified activity days. BBALL and LAX athletes experienced higher values on game days for TDEE, AEE, and PAL, with the lowest values experienced on off days. In conclusion, calculated levels of TDEE, AEE, and PAL in female collegiate BBALL and LAX athletes were determined to be different, irrespective of the scheduled activity.