Solid matrix-based lipid nanoplatforms as carriers for combinational therapeutics in cancer

Advances in Lipid-Based Codelivery Systems for Cancer and Inflammatory Diseases

Combination therapy targeting multiple therapeutic targets is a favorable strategy to achieve better therapeutic outcomes in cancer and inflammatory diseases. Codelivery is a subfield of drug delivery that aims to achieve combined delivery of diverse therapeutic cargoes within the same delivery system, thereby ensuring delivery to the same site and providing an opportunity to tailor the release kinetics as desired. Among the wide range of materials being investigated in the design of codelivery systems, lipids have stood out on account of their low toxicity, biocompatibility, and ease of formulation scale-up. This review highlights the advances of the last decade in lipid-based codelivery systems focusing on the codelivery of drug-drug, drug-nucleic acid, nucleic acid-nucleic acid, and protein therapeutic-based combinations for targeted therapy in cancer and inflammatory diseases.

Hyaluronan self-agglomerating nanoparticles for non-small cell lung cancer targeting

Background

Owing to the limited amount of research, there are no nanoparticle-based anticancer agents that use hydrophilic drugs. Therefore, we developed irinotecan-loaded self-agglomerating hyaluronan nanoparticles (ISHNs). While irinotecan has high hydrophilicity, the resulting nanoparticle should possess high anticancer drug-loading capacity and allow selective targeting of the cluster of differentiation 44 (CD44) protein, which is overexpressed on the surface of tumor cells.

Results

The ISHNs were successfully made with hyaluronan (HA) as a targeting moiety, FeCl3 as a binder, and D-glutamic acid (GA) as a stabilizer. The ISHNs self-agglomerated via chelating bonding and were lyophilized using a freeze dryer. The particle diameter and zeta potential of the ISHNs were 93.8 ± 4.48 nm and − 36.3 ± 0.28 mV, respectively; a relatively narrow size distribution was observed. The drug fixation yield and drug-loading concentration were 58.3% and 1.75 mg/mL, respectively. Affinity studies revealed a tenfold stronger targeting to H23 (CD44+) non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cells, than of A549 (CD44−) cells.

Conclusion

We developed irinotecan-loaded ISHNs, which comprised irinotecan hydrochloride as a water-soluble anticancer agent, HA as a targeting moiety, FeCl3 as a binder for self-agglomeration, and GA as a stabilizer; HA is a binding material for CD44 in NSCLC cells. Owing to their ease of manufacture, excellent stability, non-cell toxicity and CD44-targeting ability, ISHNs are potential nanocarriers for passive and active tumor targeting.

Pesticide-loaded colloidal nanodelivery systems; preparation, characterization, and applications

The fast developments in pesticide-loaded nanodelivery systems over the last decade have inspired many companies and research organizations to highlight potential applications by employing encapsulation approaches in order to protect the agricultural crops. This approach is being used to retard the indiscriminate application of conventional pesticides, as well as, to make ensure the environmental safety. This article shed light on the potential of colloidal delivery systems, particularly controlled releasing profiles of several pesticides with enhanced stability and improved solubility. Colloidal nanodelivery systems, being efficient nanoformulations, have the ability to boost up the pest-control competence for prolonged intervals thru averting the early degradation of active ingredients under severe ecofriendly circumstances. This work is thus aimed to provide critical information on the meaningful role of nanocarriers for loading of pesticides. The smart art of pesticide-loaded nanocarriers can be more fruitful owing to the use of lower amount of active ingredients with improved efficiency along with minimizing the pesticide loss. Also, the future research gaps regarding nano-pesticide formulations, such as role of nanomaterials as active ingredients are discussed briefly. In addition, this article can deliver valuable information to the readers while establishing novel pesticide-loaded nanocarriers for a wide range of applications in the agriculture sectors.

Recent advances in nano delivery systems for blood-brain barrier (BBB) penetration and targeting of brain tumors

Gliomas constitute about 80% of brain tumors and have a meager two-year survival rate. The treatment options available are very few because of poor prognosis and a lack of targeted nanodelivery systems that can cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and the blood-tumor barrier. This short review attempts to clarify the challenges for delivery systems designed to cross the BBB, and provides a brief description of the different types of targeted nanodelivery system that have shown potential for success in delivering drugs to the brain. Further, this review describes the most recent studies that have developed nanoparticles for brain delivery in the past five years. We also provide an insight into the most recent clinical trials designed to assess the efficacy of these nanodelivery systems for glioma.

Evaluation Preparation of Apatinib-Loaded Polymer Nanoparticles and Its Effect in the Treatment of Advanced Ovarian Cancer

Ovarian cancer is a common gynecological malignant tumor, second only to cervical cancer and uterine body cancer. In China, ovarian cancer has the highest mortality rate in gynecological tumors. Due to the rapid spread of cancer cells, the prognosis is relatively poor. Because the ovarian epithelial cancer is relatively insidious, there are no obvious clinical manifestations in the early stage. At present, apatinib chemotherapy is widely used, which can reduce the disease of patients by inhibiting the migration and proliferation of vascular endothelial cells. Fluorescence imaging is widely used in biomedical imaging. Organic fluorescent dyes are stable in nature and can be linked to a variety of molecules. They are often used in targeted imaging and therapeutic research. A cyanine dye is an organic molecule formed by two nitrogen-containing aromatic heterocycles connected by a polymethine bridge. Because neither MR contrast agents nor fluorescent dyes are targeted, specific biomolecules and contrast agents are often used in the research to diagnose and treat tumors. In this paper, a polymer nanoparticle loaded with apatinib was prepared and its therapeutic effect in advanced ovarian cancer was explored. The results show that nanoparticles loaded with apatinib are more effective than ordinary therapeutic drugs.

A promising approach to develop nanostructured lipid carriers from solid lipid nanoparticles: preparation, characterization, cytotoxicity and nucleic acid binding ability

We aimed to develop nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) displaying similar characteristics - particle size, polydispersity index, and zeta potential - with the model solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) for better comparability. By considering the hydrophilic-lipophilic balance values of solid and liquid lipids, five out of six NLCs and eight out of eight cationic NLCs (cNLCs) were successfully prepared with similar characteristics to their precursor SLN and cationic SLNs (cSLNs), respectively. Among cationic formulations, two cSLNs containing different surfactant/co-surfactant concentrations (4% and 8% S/CoS; w/w) and their cNLC versions prepared with Labrafac lipophile WL 1349 (LWL) or Labrafac PG were selected to compare cytotoxicity, stability, and nucleic acid binding ability. All formulations are well-tolerated by L-929 cells, cSLNs being least toxic. The formulations containing 4% S/CoS had higher stability after 24-months. All nanoparticles formed complexes with pDNA (Binding ability: cNLCs > cSLNs). cSLN and LWL-cNLC containing 4% S/CoS showed the highest pDNA binding capacity in each group, and their spherical/oval shape was revealed by electron microscopy. However, they did not form complexes with siRNA. The developed approach has the potential to simplify the production of (c)NLCs having similar physicochemical properties with the optimum (c)SLN and may provide better insight for (c)SLN vs.

Co-delivery of rituximab targeted curcumin and imatinib nanostructured lipid carriers in non-Hodgkin lymphoma cells

The aim of the present study was production of nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) of curcumin and imatinib for co-administration in non-Hodgkin lymphoma cells. NLCs were prepared and conjugated to rituximab to target CD20 receptors of lymphoma cell lines. Oleic acid or Labrafac and glyceryl monostearate or lecithin were used for production of NLCs. The antibody coupling efficiency to NLCs and their physical characteristics were studied. The cytotoxicity of NLCs on Jurkat T cells (CD20 receptor negative) and Ramos B cells (CD20 receptor positive) was studied by MTT assay. The cellular uptake was determined by fluorescent microscopy. The results indicated both curcumin and imatinib targeted NLCs had a significant cytotoxic effect much higher than the free drugs and non-targeted NLCs on Ramos cells. In both cell lines, the cytotoxicity of the co-administrated drugs was significantly higher than each drug alone. In Ramos cells the co-administration of curcumin (15 μg/ml)/imatinib (5 μg/ml) decreased the free curcumin IC₅₀ from 8.3 ± 0.9 to 1.9 ± 0.2 μg/ml, and curcumin targeted NLCs from 6.7 ± 0.1 to 1.3 ± 0.2 μg/ml. In this case the IC₅₀ of imatinib was reduced from 11.1 ± 0.7 to 2.3 ± 0.1 μg/ml and imatinib targeted NLCs from 4.3 ± 0.1 to 1.4 ± 0.0 μg/ml. The co-administration of ritoximab conjugated NLCs of curcumin and imatinib may enhance cytotoxicity of imatinib in treatment of non-Hodgkin lymphoma.

Strategic Approaches for Colon Targeted Drug Delivery: An Overview of Recent Advancements

Colon targeted drug delivery systems have gained a great deal of attention as potential carriers for the local treatment of colonic diseases with reduced systemic side effects and also for the enhanced oral delivery of various therapeutics vulnerable to acidic and enzymatic degradation in the upper gastrointestinal tract. In recent years, the global pharmaceutical market for biologics has grown, and increasing demand for a more patient-friendly drug administration system highlights the importance of colonic drug delivery as a noninvasive delivery approach for macromolecules. Colon-targeted drug delivery systems for macromolecules can provide therapeutic benefits including better patient compliance (because they are pain-free and can be self-administered) and lower costs. Therefore, to achieve more efficient colonic drug delivery for local or systemic drug effects, various strategies have been explored including pH-dependent systems, enzyme-triggered systems, receptor-mediated systems, and magnetically-driven systems. In this review, recent advancements in various approaches for designing colon targeted drug delivery systems and their pharmaceutical applications are covered with a particular emphasis on formulation technologies.

Carotenoid-loaded nanocarriers: A comprehensive review

Carotenoids retain plenty of health benefits and attracting much attention recently, but they have less resistance to processing stresses, easily oxidized and chemically unstable. Additionally, their application in food and pharmaceuticals are restricted due to some limitations such as poor bioavailability, less solubility and quick release. Nanoencapsulation techniques can be used to protect the carotenoids and to uphold their original characteristics during processing, storage and digestion, improve their physiochemical properties and enhance their health promoting effects. The importance of nanocarriers in foods and pharmaceuticals cannot be denied. This review comprehensively covers recent advances in nanoencapsulation of carotenoids with biopolymeric nanocarriers (polysaccharides and proteins), and lipid-based nanocarriers, their functionalities, aptness and innovative developments in preparation strategies. Furthermore, the present state of the art encapsulation of different carotenoids via biopolymeric and lipid-based nanocarriers have been enclosed and tabulated well. Nanoencapsulation has a vast range of applications for protection of carotenoids. Polysaccharides in combination with different proteins can offer a great avenue to achieve the desired formulation for encapsulation of carotenoids by using different nanoencapsulation strategies. In terms of lipid based nanocarriers, solid lipid nanoparticles and nanostructure lipid carriers are proving as the encouraging candidates for entrapment of carotenoids. Additionally, nanoliposomes and nanoemulsion are also promising and novel-vehicles for the protection of carotenoids against challenging aspects as well as offering an effectual controlled release on the targeted sites. In the future, further studies could be conducted for exploring the application of nanoencapsulated systems in food and gastrointestinal tract (GIT) for industrial applications.

Liposomal Formulations for Nose-to-Brain Delivery: Recent Advances and Future Perspectives

Restricted drug entry to the brain that is closely associated with the existence of the blood brain barrier (BBB) has limited the accessibility of most potential active therapeutic compounds to the brain from the systemic circulation. Recently, evidences for the presence of direct nose-to-brain drug transport pathways have been accumulated by several studies and an intranasal drug administration route has gained attention as a promising way for providing direct access to the brain without the needs to cross to the BBB. Studies aiming for developing nanoparticles as an intranasal drug carrier have shown considerable promise in overcoming the challenges of intranasal drug delivery route. This review gives a comprehensive overview of works having investigated liposomes as a potential vehicle to deliver drugs to the brain through nose-to-brain route while considering the excellent biocompatibility and high potential of liposomes for clinical development. Herein, studies are reviewed with special emphasis on the impact of formulation factors, such as liposome composition and surface modification of liposomes with targeting moieties, in addition to intranasal environmental factors that may affect the extent/site of absorption of intranasally administered, liposome-encapsulated drugs.

The Delivery Strategy of Paclitaxel Nanostructured Lipid Carrier Coated with Platelet Membrane

Strategies for the development of anticancer drug delivery systems have undergone a dramatic transformation in the last few decades. Lipid-based drug delivery systems, such as a nanostructured lipid carrier (NLC), are one of the systems emerging to improve the outcomes of tumor treatments. However, NLC can act as an intruder and cause an immune response. To overcome this limitation, biomimicry technology was introduced to decorate the surface of the nanoparticles with various cell membrane proteins. Here, we designed paclitaxel (PT)-loaded nanostructured lipid carrier (PT-NLC) with platelet (PLT) membrane protein because PLT is involved with angiogenesis and interaction of circulating tumor cells. After PLT was isolated from blood using the gravity-gradient method and it was used for coating PT-NLC. Spherical PT-NLC and platelet membrane coated PT-NLC (P-PT-NLC) were successfully fabricated with high encapsulation efficiency (EE) (99.98%) and small particle size (less than 200 nm). The successful coating of PT-NLC with a PLT membrane was confirmed by the identification of CD41 based on transmission electron microscopy (TEM), western blot assay and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) data. Moreover, the stronger affinity of P-PT-NLC than that of PT-NLC toward tumor cells was observed. In vitro cell study, the PLT coated nanoparticles successfully displayed the anti-tumor effect to SK-OV-3 cells. In summary, the biomimicry carrier system P-PT-NLC has an affinity and targeting ability for tumor cells.

The roles of short and long chain fatty acids on physicochemical properties and improved cancer targeting of albumin-based fattigation-platform nanoparticles containing doxorubicin

The aim of this study was to investigate the impact of different chain length fatty acids on physicochemical properties and cancer targeting of fattigation-platform nanoparticles (NPs). Two different types of fatty acids (short chain, 2-hydroxybutyric acid, C4; long chain, oleic acid, C18:1) were successfully conjugated to human serum albumin (HSA) via simple 1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl) carbodiimide hydrochloride (EDC) coupling reaction. These conjugates readily formed HSA-C4 and HSA-C18:1 NPs which showed good stability in serum and desirable biocompatibility with normal cell line (HEK293T). Doxorubicin hydrochloride (DOX) was efficiently loaded into NPs by incubation process via electrostatic interaction. The structure, morphology, and texture of DOX-loaded NPs were characterized by Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) equipped with Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS). The initial burst release of DOX-loaded NPs was controlled by the presence and chain length of fatty acids. In vitro cytotoxicity studies with three cancer cell lines (A549, HT-29, and PANC-1) suggested that fattigation-platform NPs have distinctive cytotoxic effects compared to Doxil^®. Confocal microscopy and flow cytometry exhibited that the cellular uptake of DOX-loaded NPs was varied by the different chain lengths of fatty acids. It was evident that the chain length of fatty acids in the fattigation-platform NPs could play a vital role in varying physicochemical properties and cancer cell targeting of NPs.

Aerosol technique-based carbon-encapsulated hollow mesoporous silica nanoparticles for synergistic chemo-photothermal therapy

Near-infrared (NIR)-responsive drug delivery systems have enhanced tumor ablative efficiency through permeation and retention effects. Graphene oxide (GO) has shown great potential both in photothermal therapy and in drug delivery. Thus, in this study, we designed an ambient spark-generated GO, wrapped on topotecan (TPT)-loaded hollow mesoporous silica nanoparticles (HMSN-NH2-TPT-CGO), to function as an efficient platform for pH-dependent sustained release of TPT. HMSN-NH2-TPT-CGO also exhibited a combined chemo-photothermal effect within a single carrier system. This developed system was stable with a uniform particle size (∼190 nm) and was demonstrated to possess a sufficient heat-absorbing capacity to induce tumor cell ablation. We performed the ablation of tumor cells both in vitro and in vivo in combination with photothermal therapy and chemotherapy using the spark-generated functional GO and HMSN. The prepared nanocarriers demonstrated high cellular uptake, apoptosis, and G0/G1 cell cycle arrest. In vivo study using the MDA-MB-231 xenograft model revealed the ultraefficient tumor ablative performance of HMSN-NH2-TPT-CGO compared with that of free TPT, with no toxic effect on vital organs. Altogether, the optimized nanocarriers presented a significant potential to act as a vehicle for cancer treatment. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: This is the first study that uses spark-generated graphene oxide nanoflakes to cover the topotecan (TPT)-loaded hollow mesoporous silica nanoparticles (HMSNs) to treat breast cancer. Dense silica was used as a hard template to prepare the HMSNs attributing to a high drug payload. The concentration of Na₂CO₃ was precisely controlled to minimize the silica etching time within 70 min. The use of the nanographene flakes served a dual purpose, first, by acting as a capping agent to prevent the premature release of drug and, second, by serving as a nano heater that significantly ablates the tumor cells. The prepared nanocarriers (NCs) exhibited effective and enhanced in vitro and in vivo apoptosis, as well as significant tumor growth inhibition even after 15 days of treatment time, with no toxic effect to the vital organs. The NCs enhanced in vitro tumor cell killing effects and served as an effective carrier for in vivo tumor regression, thereby highlighting the enormous potential of this system for breast cancer therapy.

Copper sulfide: An emerging adaptable nanoplatform in cancer theranostics

Copper sulfide nanoparticles (CuS NPs), emerging nanoplatforms with dual diagnostic and therapeutic applications, are being actively investigated in this era of "war on cancer" owing to their versatility and adaptability. This article discusses the pros and cons of using CuS NPs in diagnostics, therapeutics, and theranostics. The first section introduces CuS NPs and discusses the features that render them more advantageous than other established nanoplatforms in cancer management. Subsequent sections include specific in vitro and in vivo results of different studies showing the potential of CuS NPs as nanoplatforms. Methods used for visualization (photoacoustic imaging and magnetic resonance imaging) of CuS NPs and treatment (phototherapy and combinatorial therapy) have also been discussed. Furthermore, the challenges and opportunities associated with using CuS NPs have been elucidated. Further investigations on CuS NPs are required to translate it for clinical applications.

Simvastatin-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles for enhanced anti-hyperlipidemic activity in hyperlipidemia animal model

The objective of current study was to develop solid lipid nanoparticles-loaded with simvastatin (SIM-SLNs) and investigate their in vivo anti-hyperlipidemic activity in poloxamer-induced hyperlipidemia model. Nano-template engineering technique was used to prepare SIM-SLNs with palmityl alcohol as lipid core and a mixture of Tween 40/Span 40/Myrj 52 to stabilize the core. The prepared SIM-SLNs were evaluated for physicochemical parameters including particle diameter, surface charge, morphology, incorporation efficiency, thermal behaviour and crystallinity. In vitro release profile of SIM-SLNs in simulated gastric and intestinal fluids was evaluated by using dialysis bag technique and anti-hyperlipidemic activity was assessed in hyperlipidemia rat model. SIM-SLNs revealed uniform particle size with spherical morphology, zeta potential of -24.9 mV and high incorporation efficiency (∼85%). Thermal behaviour and crystallinity studies demonstrated successful incorporation of SIM in the lipid core and its conversion to amorphous form. SIM-SLNs demonstrated a sustained SIM release from the lipid core of nanoparticles. SIM-SLNs significantly reduced the elevated serum lipids as indicated by ∼3.9 and ∼1.5-times decreased total cholesterol compared to those of untreated control and SIM dispersion treated hyperlipidemic rats. In conclusion, SIM-SLNs showed a great promise for improving the therapeutic outcomes of SIM via its effective oral delivery.

Transferrin-Conjugated Polymeric Nanoparticle for Receptor-Mediated Delivery of Doxorubicin in Doxorubicin-Resistant Breast Cancer Cells

In this study, a transferrin (Tf)-conjugated polymeric nanoparticle was developed for the targeted delivery of the chemotherapeutic agent doxorubicin (Dox) in order to overcome multi-drug resistance in cancer treatment. Our objective was to improve Dox delivery for producing significant antitumor efficacy in Dox-resistant (R) breast cancer cell lines with minimum toxicity to healthy cells. The results of our experiments revealed that Dox was successfully loaded inside a transferrin (Tf)-conjugated polymeric nanoparticle composed of poloxamer 407 (F127) and 123 (P123) (Dox/F127&P123-Tf), which produced nanosized particles (~90 nm) with a low polydispersity index (~0.23). The accelerated and controlled release profiles of Dox from the nanoparticles were characterized in acidic and physiological pH and Dox/F127&P123-Tf enhanced Dox cytotoxicity in OVCAR-3, MDA-MB-231, and MDA-MB-231(R) cell lines through induction of cellular apoptosis. Moreover, Dox/F127&P123-Tf inhibited cell migration and altered the cell cycle patterns of different cancer cells. In vivo study in MDA-MB-231(R) tumor-bearing mice demonstrated enhanced delivery of nanoparticles to the tumor site when coated in a targeting moiety. Therefore, Dox/F127&P123-Tf has been tailored, using the principles of nanotherapeutics, to overcome drug-resistant chemotherapy.

Co-delivery of d-(KLAKLAK)2 peptide and doxorubicin using a pH-sensitive nanocarrier for synergistic anticancer treatment

Currently, one of the most important challenges in the development of nanotechnology-based anticancer treatments is the failure of nanoparticles to escape from the endo-lysosomal compartment.

Folate-targeted nanostructured chitosan/chondroitin sulfate complex carriers for enhanced delivery of bortezomib to colorectal cancer cells

Folate-targeting self-assembled nanoparticles (NPs) using biocompatible and biodegradable natural polymers chitosan (Cs) and chondroitin sulfate (Chs) were developed to address the major challenge in cancer treatment, the selective delivery of nanoparticles to the target site. In this study, we successfully incorporated a hydrophobic drug, bortezomib (Bor), into folic acid (FA)-conjugated Cs/Chs self-assembled NPs (Bor/Cs/Chs-FA) for colorectal cancer therapy. The particle size and polydispersity index of Bor/Cs/Chs-FA were ∼196.5 ± 1.2 nm and ∼0.21 ± 0.5, respectively. A pH-dependent release profile was observed, facilitating cancer cell-targeted drug release under an acidic tumor microenvironment. Moreover, in vitro data revealed enhanced cellular uptake and apoptosis in folate receptor-expressing colorectal cancer cells (HCT-116 and HT-29) as compared to that in lung cancer cells (A549), which do not express folate receptors. Furthermore, intravenous administration of Bor/Cs/Chs-FA in a HCT-116 bearing xenograft mouse model showed that the NPs were a safe and effective drug delivery system. The results suggest that folate-targeted nanoparticle can be effectively applied for efficient chemotherapy of colorectal cancer.

Hyaluronic acid-capped compact silica-supported mesoporous titania nanoparticles for ligand-directed delivery of doxorubicin

Mesoporous titania nanoparticles (MTN), owing to their high surface area to volume ratio and tunable pore sizes, appear capable of delivering sizable amounts of drug payloads, and hence, show considerable promise as drug delivery candidates in cancer therapy. We designed silica-supported MTN (MTNst) coated with hyaluronic acid (HA) to effectively deliver doxorubicin (DOX) for breast cancer therapy. The HA coating served a dual purpose of stabilizing the payload in the carriers as well as actively targeting the nanodevices to CD44 receptors. The so-formed HA-coated MTNst carrying DOX (HA/DOX-MTNst) had spheroid particles with a considerable drug-loading capacity and showed significantly superior in vitro cytotoxicity against MDA-MB-231 cells as compared to free DOX. HA/DOX-MTNst markedly improved the cellular uptake of DOX in an apparently CD44 receptor-dependent manner, and increased the number of apoptotic cells as compared to free DOX. These nanoplatforms accumulated in large quantities in the tumors of MDA-MB-231 xenograft tumor-bearing mice, where they significantly enhanced the inhibition of tumor growth compared to that observed with free DOX with no signs of acute toxicity. Based on these excellent results, we deduced that HA/DOX-MTNst could be successfully used for targeted breast cancer therapy. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: This is the first study to use silica-supported mesoporous titania nanoparticles (MTNst) for doxorubicin (DOX) delivery to treat breast cancer, which exhibited effective and enhanced in vitro and in vivo apoptosis and tumor growth inhibition. Solid silica was used to support the mesoporous TiO₂ resulting in MTNst, which efficiently incorporated a high DOX payload. The hyaluronic acid (HA) coating over the MTNst surface served a dual purpose of first, stabilizing DOX inside the MTNst (capping agent), and second, directing the nanoplatform device to CD44 receptors that are highly expressed in MDA-MB-231 cells (targeting ligand). The NPs exhibited highly efficacious in vitro tumor-cell killing and excellent in vivo tumor regression, highlighting the enormous promise of this system for breast cancer therapy.

Nanomaterials for modulating innate immune cells in cancer immunotherapy

Cancer immunotherapy has been intensively investigated in both preclinical and clinical studies. Whereas chemotherapies use cytotoxic drugs to kill tumor cells, cancer immunotherapy is based on the ability of the immune system to fight cancer. Tumors are intimately associated with the immune system: they can suppress the immune response and/or control immune cells to support tumor growth. Immunotherapy has yielded promising results in clinical practice, but some patients show limited responses. This may reflect the complexities of the relationship between a tumor and the immune system. In an effort to improve the current immunotherapies, researchers have exploited nanomaterials in creating new strategies to cure tumors via modulation of the immune system in tumor tissues. Although extensive studies have examined the use of immune checkpoint-based immunotherapy, rather less work has focused on manipulating the innate immune cells. This review examines the recent approaches and challenges in the use of nanomaterials to modulate innate immune cells.

Prussian blue nanoparticles: Synthesis, surface modification, and application in cancer treatment

This review outlines recently developed Prussian blue nanoparticle (PB NPs)-based multimodal imaging-guided chemo-photothermal strategies for cancer diagnosis and treatment in order to provide insight into the future of the field. The primary limitation of existing therapeutics is the lack of selectivity in drug delivery: they target healthy and cancerous cells alike. In this paper, we provide a thorough review of diverse synthetic and surface engineering techniques for PB NP fabrication. We have elucidated the various targeting approaches employed to deliver the therapeutic and imaging ligands into the tumor area, and outlined methods for enhancement of the tumor ablative ability of the NPS, including several important combinatorial approaches. In addition, we have summarized different in vitro and in vivo effects of PB NP-based therapies used to overcome both systemic and tumor-associated local barriers. An important new approach - PB NP-based immune drug delivery, which is an exciting and promising strategy to overcome cancer resistance and tumor recurrence - has been discussed. Finally, we have discussed the current understanding of the toxicological effects of PB NPs and PB NP-based therapeutics. We conclude that PB NP-based multimodal imaging-guided chemo-photothermal therapy offers new treatment strategies to overcome current hurdles in cancer diagnosis and treatment.

Folate receptor-mediated celastrol and irinotecan combination delivery using liposomes for effective chemotherapy

Drug targeting using functionalized nanoparticles provides a new standard in anticancer therapy. Liposomes, safe and effective drug delivery carriers, can incorporate both hydrophilic and hydrophobic drugs for combination chemotherapy treatment of cancers. The objectives of the current study were to synthesize and test the effectiveness of a nanotechnology-based strategy utilizing folic acid (FA)-conjugated liposomes that incorporate both celastrol (Cs) and irinotecan (Ir) for targeted breast cancer therapy. Our results revealed the successful preparation of Cs and Ir-loaded folate-targeted liposomes (Lipo/Cs/Ir-FA) with a small particle size (∼190 nm) and polydispersity index (∼0.10). The formulation exhibited higher drug release profiles for both Ir and Cs at pH 5.0 compared to those at physiological pH, favoring cancer cell-targeted release. Furthermore, in vitro cell studies showed high uptake and enhanced apoptosis in folate receptor-positive breast cancer cells (MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231), but not in folate receptor-negative lung cancer cells (A549). Moreover, an in vivo study in a mouse tumor model using MDA-MB-231 xenografts supported effective drug delivery behavior of the folate-conjugated liposomes by selective targeting of tumor tissue and minimizing systemic adverse effects. Therefore, our formulation could provide an effective therapy for targeted cancer treatment.

Nanoparticles for dendritic cell-based immunotherapy

Crosstalk among immune cells has attracted considerable attention with the advent of immunotherapy as a novel therapeutic approach for challenging diseases, especially cancer, which is the leading cause of mortality worldwide. Dendritic cells-the key antigen-presenting cells-play a pivotal role in immunological response by presenting exogenous epitopes to T cells, which induces the self-defense mechanisms of the body. Furthermore, nanotechnology has provided promising ways for diagnosing and treating cancer in the last decade. The progress in nanoparticle drug carrier development, combined with enhanced understanding of the immune system, has enabled harnessing of anti-tumor immunity. This review focuses on the recent advances in nanotechnology that have improved the therapeutic efficacy of immunotherapies, with emphasis on dendritic cell physiology and its role in presenting antigens and eliciting therapeutic T cell response.