Analysis and identification of chemical constituents of fenugreek by UPLC-IT-MS n and UPLC-Q-TOF-MS

Fenugreek extract improves diabetes-induced endothelial dysfunction via the arginase 1 pathway

Endothelial dysfunction (ED) is an initiating trigger and key factor in vascular complications, leading to disability and mortality in individuals with diabetes. The research concerning therapeutic interventions for ED has gained considerable interest. Fenugreek, a commonly used edible plant in dietary consumption, has attracted significant attention due to its management of diabetes and its associated complications. The research presented in this study examines the potential therapeutic benefits of fenugreek in treating ED and investigates the underlying mechanism associated with its effects. The analysis on fenugreek was performed using 70% ethanol extract, and its chemical composition was analyzed using ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-Q-TOF/MS). In total, we identified 49 compounds present in the fenugreek extract. These compounds encompass flavonoids, saponins, and phospholipids. Then, the models of ED in streptozotocin-induced diabetic mice and high glucose-induced isolated rat aortas were established for research. Through vascular function testing, it was observed that fenugreek extract effectively improved ED induced by diabetes or high glucose. By analyzing the protein expression of arginase 1 (Arg1), Arg activity, Arg1 immunohistochemistry, nitric oxide (NO) level, and the protein expression of endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS), p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38 MAPK), and p-p38 MAPK in aortas, this study revealed that the potential mechanism of fenugreek extract in anti-ED involves the downregulation of Arg1, leading to enhanced NO production. Furthermore, analysis of serum exosomes carrying Arg activity indicates that fenugreek may decrease the activity of Arg transported by serum exosomes, potentially preventing the increase in Arg levels triggered by the uptake of serum exosomes by vascular endothelial cells. In general, this investigation offers valuable observations regarding the curative impact of fenugreek extract on anti-ED in diabetes, revealing the involvement of the Arg1 pathway in its mechanism.

Unraveling the mechanisms of Fenugreek seed for managing different gynecological disorders: steroidal saponins and isoflavones revealed as key bioactive metabolites

This study employed network pharmacology-based analysis and reverse molecular docking to investigate the molecular targets and pathways associated with gynecological disorders, particularly those related to steroidal hormones and their receptors, and the potential therapeutic effects of fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum L.) constituents. The STITCH 5.0 database was utilized to identify potential molecular targets, and a compound-target network was constructed. The main targets associated with gynecological disorders included estrogen receptor beta (ESR2), estrogen-related receptor gamma (GPER1), oxytocin receptor (OXTR), progesterone receptor (PGR), prolactin receptor (PRLR), and several enzymes involved in sex hormone biosynthesis. Additionally, network topological analysis revealed that specific compounds, such as quercetin, luteolin, genistein, and vitexin, had significant interactions with the identified targets. Reverse molecular docking analysis confirmed the interactions between the identified compounds and target proteins where quercetin, luteolin, genistein, 4'-methylgenistein, trigoneoside IIB, diosgenin, and vitexin possessed the highest combined docking scores, indicating their multi-target nature. The results highlighted the potential of steroidal saponins, isoflavones, and flavones as active constituents of fenugreek with implications for lactation, reproductive processes, and estrogenic activity. The chemical profiling of saponin-enriched and flavonoid-enriched fractions using UPLC/MS/MS further supported the presence of these bioactive compounds. In an animal model study, the steroidal saponins-enriched fraction of fenugreek seed exhibited a significant increase in the body weight of lactating female rats and serum prolactin levels while the flavonoids-enriched fraction showed an increase in serum estradiol levels and improved the histological structure of ovaries.

Deciphering the metabolic signatures of Trigonella microgreens as a function of photoperiod and temperature using targeted compound analysis and non-targeted UHPLC-QTOF-IMS based approach

Trigonella foenum-graecum L. (Fenugreek) is an annual herb that belongs to Fabaceae family. The compositional make-up of microgreens depends on prevailing environmental conditions. So, Trigonella microgreens were cultivated under different photoperiod and temperature conditions and evaluated for plant height, total chlorophyll content (TCC), targeted compound analysis and non-targeted UHPLC-QTOF-IMS based metabolomic profile. The plant height and TCC of Trigonella microgreens increased by approximately 22 % and 20 %, respectively under T1 conditions (longer photoperiod of 22 h with 22 °C in light and 17 °C in dark). The targeted phenolic profile analysis revealed the dominant presence of gallic acid, p-coumaric acid and apigenin in Trigonella microgreens. Also, the concentration of p-coumaric acid concentration raised from 3.51 mg/g to 5.83 mg/g as a response of T1 conditions. The sugar profile revealed augmented concentration of myo-inositol, glucose, fructose, xylose, maltose, and sucrose in longer photoperiod with T1 conditions. The microgreens were also rich in amino acids like aspartic acid, glutamic acid, leucine, isoleucine, and phenylalanine. Notably, the concentration of proline increased from 10.40 mg/g to 16.92 mg/g as a response to T1 growth conditions. The concentration of these metabolites varied significantly under different photoperiod and temperature conditions. The comprehensive non-targeted UHPLC-QTOF-IMS analysis of microgreens revealed different class of metabolites like organic compounds, alkaloids, coumarin-derivatives, phenolic and flavonoid derivatives, terpenoids, sugars, amino acids and few nucleic acid derivatives. The multivariate PLS-DA explained different expression level of metabolites under different growing conditions. The T1 growing condition resulted in the increased biosynthesis of phenolic compounds and various metabolites. The expression level of terpenoid derivatives specifically of Trigonelloside C and Trigoneoside XIIa/b increased under T1 conditions. The substantial alteration in the metabolites due to growing conditions may alter the microgreen's dietary benefits. So, additional research may be warranted.

Quality-controlled LC-ESI-MS food metabolomics of fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum) sprouts: Insights into changes in primary and specialized metabolites

Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum L.) is an important food and spice with bioactive compounds against diabetes. In this study, fenugreek seeds germinating in darkness for 72 h were studied using quantification of trigonelline and 4-hydroxyisoleucine and an LC-ESI-MS/MS-based metabolomic approach capable of accurately estimating 237 features from various primary and specialized compound classes. During germination, the concentrations of trigonelline and 4-hydroxyisoleucine rose by 33.5% and 33.3%, respectively. At the same time, untargeted metabolomics revealed 9 putative flavonoids increasing 1.19- to 2.77-fold compared to the dormant seeds. A set of 19 steroid saponins rose by 1.08- to 31.86-fold. Primary metabolites however showed much more variability: abundance changes in amino acid derivatives, peptides and saccharides fell in the 0.09- to 22.25-fold, 0.93- to 478.79-fold and 0.36- to 941.58-fold ranges, respectively. To increase biosynthesis of specialized metabolites during germination, sprouts were exposed to 1-100 mM methyl jasmonate (MeJA) and methyl salicylate (MeSA). The hormone treatments affected normal metabolism: 67.1-83.1 % and 64.1-83.5 % of compounds showed a reduction compared to the controls in 100 mM MeJA and MeSA treatments at different sampling time points. Contrary to expectations, the abundance of flavonoids decreased, compared to the control sprouts (0.75- and 0.68-fold change medians, respectively). The same was observed for most, but not all steroid saponins. The quality-controlled untargeted metabolomics approach proved to yield excellent insight into the metabolic changes during germination of fenugreek. The results suggest that although fenugreek germination causes major shifts in plant metabolism, there are no major qualitative changes in bioactive specialized metabolites during the first three days. This stability likely translates into good bioactivity that is similar to that of the seeds. Because the large changes in the primary metabolites likely alter the nutritive value of the seed, further studies are warranted.

Formulation, Characterization and Permeability Studies of Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum) Containing Self-Emulsifying Drug Delivery System (SEDDS)

Fenugreek is used as a spice and a traditional herbal medicine for a variety of purposes, given its antidiabetic and antioxidant effects. Self-emulsifying drug delivery systems (SEDDS) of herbal drugs are targets of extensive research aiming to increase bioavailability and stability. The study’s objective was to formulate SEDDS containing Trigonella foenum-graecum extract to improve the stability of herbal extract and to increase their permeability through a Caco-2 monolayer. A characterized fenugreek dry extract was used for the formulations, while the SEDDS properties were examined by particle size analysis and zeta potential measurements. Permeability assays were carried out on Caco-2 cell monolayers, the integrity of which was monitored by follow-up trans-epithelial electric resistance measurements (TEER). Cytocompatibility was tested by the MTT method, and an indirect dissolution test was performed, using DPPH antioxidant reagent. Two different SEDDS compositions were formulated from a standardized fenugreek dry extract at either the micro- or the nanoemulsion scale with sufficient stability, enhanced bioavailability of the compounds, and sustained release from HPMC capsules. Based on our results, a modern, non-toxic, cytocompatible fenugreek SEDDS formulation with high antioxidant capacity was developed in order to improve the permeability and bioavailability of all components.

Characterization of Possible α-Glucosidase Inhibitors from Trigonella stellata Extract Using LC-MS and In Silico Molecular Docking

The current study accentuates the significance of performing the multiplex approach of LC-HRESIMS, biological activity, and docking studies in drug discovery, taking into consideration a review of the literature. In this regard, the investigation of antioxidant and cytotoxic activities of Trigonella stellata collected from the Egyptian desert revealed a significant antioxidant capacity using DPPH with IC₅₀ = 656.9 µg/mL and a moderate cytotoxicity against HepG2, MCF7, and CACO2, with IC₅₀ values of 53.3, 48.3, and 55.8 µg/mL, respectively. The evaluation of total phenolic and flavonoid contents resulted in 32.8 mg GAE/g calculated as gallic acid equivalent and 5.6 mg RE/g calculated as rutin equivalent, respectively. Chemical profiling of T. stellata extract, using LC-HRESIMS analysis, revealed the presence of 15 metabolites, among which eleven compounds were detected for the first time in this species. Interestingly, in vitro testing of the antidiabetic activity of the alcoholic extract noted an α-glucosidase enzyme inhibitory activity (IC₅₀ = 559.4 µg/mL) better than that of the standard Acarbose (IC₅₀ = 799.9 µg/mL), in addition to a moderate inhibition of the α-amylase enzyme (IC₅₀ = 0.77 µg/mL) compared to Acarbose (IC₅₀ = 0.21 µg/mL). α-Glucosidase inhibition was also virtualized by binding interactions through the molecular docking study, presenting a high binding activity of six flavonoid glycosides, as well as the diterpenoid compound graecumoside A and the alkaloid fenugreekine. Taken together, the conglomeration of LC-HRESIMS, antidiabetic activity, and molecular docking studies shed light on T. stellata as a promising antidiabetic herb.

2D LC as a tool for standardization of Foenugraeci semen extracts containing compounds with anti-Helicobacter pylori activity

The on-line heart-cutting two-dimensional liquid chromatography method with the use of a diode array detector and a mass spectrometer (LC-LC-DAD-ESI-MS) was established and validated for quantitation of C-glycosylflavones in fenugreek seeds (Foenugraeci semen, Trigonella foenum-graecum L.). The first- (¹D) and second- (²D) dimensional separations were performed on Kinetex C-18 columns with different diameters, respectively, and gradient (¹D) and isocratic elution (²D). Finally, 17 compounds were separated, 13 of which were quantified by ¹D separation and 4 compounds by ²D separation. As a result, it was pointed out that fenugreek seeds of Polish origin can be considered as a rich source of C-glycosylflavones. Antibacterial activity against Helicobacter pylori of standardized 70% methanol extract from fenugreek seeds has been demonstrated, in contrast to the inactive aqueous extract. Anti-H. pylori activity of the 70% methanol extract can be related to a higher concentration of C-glycosylflavones. This is the first report on the bactericidal activity of vitexin, diosgenin, tigogenin and sarsasapogenin against H. pylori and the bacteriostatic activity of orientin against this bacterium.

Recent Therapeutic Interventions of Fenugreek Seed: A Mechanistic Approach

Fenugreek seeds have widespread relations with Ayurveda, Unani, and Arabic medicine. The seeds were useful for the treatment and prevention of different ailments. Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum) or methi is from the Leguminosae family and are primarily known for its anti-diabetic and hypocholesterolemic activities. The germinated fenugreek seeds were used in the treatment of E.coli infection in Germany and France. The important phytoconstituents responsible for such medicinal applications are saponins, polyunsaturated fatty acids, galactomannans, trigonelline, and 4-hydroxy isoleucine. Flavonoids, apigenin 6,8-di-C-glucoside, apigenin-6-C-glucosyl-8-C-galactoside, 6-Cgalactosyl- 8-C-arabinoside are the chief ingredients of fenugreek seeds; responsible for reducing blood glucose while given to diabetic rats, whereas important flavones are epigenin, luteolin and vitexin. The other major bioactive components in fenugreek seeds are polyphenols like rhaponticin and isovitexin. Fenugreek seeds contain phosphorus and are categorized into different classes such as inorganic phosphorus, phospholipids, phytates, phosphor-proteins, and nucleic acid. Germinated seeds profusely filled with amino acids with amino acids, proteins, ascorbic acid, sugars. Further, this review shares information about the recent therapeutic intervention not covered earlier; on in vivo and in vitro and some clinical applications against certain interesting ailments other than older applications. This review includes certain nano delivery systems of Fenugreek seeds and their medicinal application.

Qualitative and quantitative HPLC-ELSD-ESI-MS analysis of steroidal saponins in fenugreek seed

Fenugreek seeds are known as a source of various compounds, the most common of which are steroidal saponins. However, despite the growing interest in this plant material as a healing agent, spice and dietary supplement ingredient, the composition of Polish fenugreek seeds remains unknown. Therefore, the steroidal saponin complex in the seeds of T. foenum-graecum cultivated in Poland was qualitatively and quantitatively analyzed by the HPLC-ELSDESI-MS method. Two C-18 columns connected in series were used for the first time in analysis of fenugreek saponins and ELS detector parameters were optimized. A total of 26 furostanol saponins were revealed, of which 24 were tentatively identified. The HPLC-ELSD method developed for quantitative analysis was preliminarily validated and the determined amount of steroidal saponins in Polish fenugreek seeds was 0.14 %.