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Madzar T, Masina T, Zaja R, Kastelan S, Cvetkovic JP, Brborovic H, Dvorski M, Kirin B, Barisic AV, Cehok I, Milosevic M. Overtraining Syndrome as a Risk Factor for Bone Stress Injuries among Paralympic Athletes. MEDICINA (KAUNAS, LITHUANIA) 2023; 60:52. [PMID: 38256312 PMCID: PMC10819479 DOI: 10.3390/medicina60010052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2023] [Revised: 12/22/2023] [Accepted: 12/26/2023] [Indexed: 01/24/2024]
Abstract
Background and Objectives: In this review, we have explored the relationship between overtraining syndrome (OTS) and bone stress injuries among paralympic athletes. OTS is a complex condition that arises from an imbalance between training volume, nutrition, and recovery time, leading to significant negative effects on paralympic athlete's performance and overall well-being. On the other hand, bone stress injuries occur when abnormal and repetitive loading is applied to normal bone, resulting in microdamage accumulation and potential. The prevalence of overtraining syndrome and bone stress injuries among athletes highlights the need for a better understanding of their relationship and implications for prevention and management strategies. Methods: A literature review from the PubMed, Web of Science, and Google Scholar databases including the MeSH keywords "overtraining syndrome", "bone", and "paralympic athletes". Results: Studies have consistently shown that athletes engaged in endurance sports are particularly susceptible to overtraining syndrome. The multifactorial nature of this condition involves not only physical factors, but also psychological and environmental determinants. In addition, the diagnosis and management of OTS and bone stress injuries present challenges in clinical practice. Conclusions: Currently, there are no definitive biochemical markers for overtraining syndrome. The diagnosis is based on a combination of subjective measures such as questionnaires, symptoms checklists, and objective biomarkers, including hormone levels, inflammatory markers, and imaging studies. However, these diagnostic approaches have limitations regarding their specificity and sensitivity.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Tonci Masina
- School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, Salata 3, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia; (T.M.); (R.Z.); (S.K.); (J.P.C.); (H.B.); (M.D.)
| | - Roko Zaja
- School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, Salata 3, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia; (T.M.); (R.Z.); (S.K.); (J.P.C.); (H.B.); (M.D.)
| | - Snjezana Kastelan
- School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, Salata 3, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia; (T.M.); (R.Z.); (S.K.); (J.P.C.); (H.B.); (M.D.)
| | - Jasna Pucarin Cvetkovic
- School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, Salata 3, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia; (T.M.); (R.Z.); (S.K.); (J.P.C.); (H.B.); (M.D.)
| | - Hana Brborovic
- School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, Salata 3, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia; (T.M.); (R.Z.); (S.K.); (J.P.C.); (H.B.); (M.D.)
| | - Matija Dvorski
- School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, Salata 3, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia; (T.M.); (R.Z.); (S.K.); (J.P.C.); (H.B.); (M.D.)
| | - Boris Kirin
- Croatian Paralympic Committee, Savska Cesta 137, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia; (B.K.); (A.V.B.)
- General County Hospital Bjelovar, Antuna Mihanovica 8, 43000 Bjelovar, Croatia
| | - Andreja Vukasovic Barisic
- Croatian Paralympic Committee, Savska Cesta 137, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia; (B.K.); (A.V.B.)
- General County Hospital Bjelovar, Antuna Mihanovica 8, 43000 Bjelovar, Croatia
| | - Ivan Cehok
- Department of Nursing, University North, 104 Brigade 3, 42000 Varazdin, Croatia;
| | - Milan Milosevic
- School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, Salata 3, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia; (T.M.); (R.Z.); (S.K.); (J.P.C.); (H.B.); (M.D.)
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Yue Y, Yue Y, Fan Z, Meng Y, Wen C, An Y, Yao Y, Li X. The long noncoding RNA lnc-H19 is important for endurance exercise by maintaining slow muscle fiber types. J Biol Chem 2023; 299:105281. [PMID: 37742921 PMCID: PMC10598739 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2023.105281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2023] [Revised: 08/28/2023] [Accepted: 09/13/2023] [Indexed: 09/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Skeletal muscle consists of different muscle fiber types whose heterogeneity is characterized by different metabolic patterns and expression of MyHC isomers. The transformation of muscle fiber types is regulated by a complex molecular network in which long noncoding (lnc) RNAs play an important role. In this study, we found that lnc-H19 is more enriched in slow muscle fibers. In vitro, interference of lnc-H19 by siRNA significantly promoted the expression of fast muscle fiber gene MyHC IIB and inhibited the expression of the slow muscle fiber gene MyHC I, thereby leading to a fast muscle fiber phenotype. In addition, interference of lnc-H19 significantly inhibited mRNA expression of the mitochondrial genes, such as COX5A, COX-2, UQCRFSL, FABP3, and CD36. Overexpression of lnc-H19 resulted in an opposite result. In vivo, knockdown of lnc-H19 by AAV-shRNA-H19 suppressed the mRNA expression of the slow muscle fiber gene MyHC I and the protein expression of slow-MyHC. Simultaneously, mitochondria were reduced in number, swollen, and vacuolated. The activities of succinate dehydrogenase, lactic dehydrogenase, and superoxide dismutase were significantly inhibited, and malondialdehyde content was significantly increased, indicating that deficiency of lnc-H19 leads to decreased oxidative metabolism and antioxidant capacity in muscle. Furthermore, inhibition of lnc-H19 decreased the weight-bearing swimming time and limb suspension time of mice. In conclusion, our results revealed the role of lnc-H19 in maintaining slow muscle fiber types and maintaining exercise endurance, which may help to further improve the regulatory network of lnc-H19 in muscle function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yongqi Yue
- Key Laboratory of Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction of Shaanxi Province, College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Shaanxi, China
| | - Yanru Yue
- Key Laboratory of Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction of Shaanxi Province, College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Shaanxi, China
| | - Zeyu Fan
- Key Laboratory of Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction of Shaanxi Province, College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Shaanxi, China
| | - Yingying Meng
- Key Laboratory of Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction of Shaanxi Province, College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Shaanxi, China
| | - Chenglong Wen
- Key Laboratory of Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction of Shaanxi Province, College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Shaanxi, China
| | - Yalong An
- Key Laboratory of Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction of Shaanxi Province, College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Shaanxi, China
| | - Ying Yao
- Key Laboratory of Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction of Shaanxi Province, College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Shaanxi, China
| | - Xiao Li
- Key Laboratory of Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction of Shaanxi Province, College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Shaanxi, China; Key Laboratory of Livestock Biology, Northwest A&F University, Shaanxi, China.
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Training Periodization, Intensity Distribution, and Volume in Trained Cyclists: A Systematic Review. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2023; 18:112-122. [PMID: 36640771 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2022-0302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2022] [Revised: 11/16/2022] [Accepted: 11/18/2022] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
A well-planned periodized approach endeavors to allow road cyclists to achieve peak performance when their most important competitions are held. PURPOSE To identify the main characteristics of periodization models and physiological parameters of trained road cyclists as described by discernable training intensity distribution (TID), volume, and periodization models. METHODS The electronic databases Scopus, PubMed, and Web of Science were searched using a comprehensive list of relevant terms. Studies that investigated the effect of the periodization of training in cyclists and described training load (volume, TID) and periodization details were included in the systematic review. RESULTS Seven studies met the inclusion criteria. Block periodization (characterized by employment of highly concentrated training workload phases) ranged between 1- and 8-week blocks of high-, medium-, or low-intensity training. Training volume ranged from 8.75 to 11.68 h·wk-1 and both pyramidal and polarized TID were used. Traditional periodization (characterized by a first period of high-volume/low-intensity training, before reducing volume and increasing the proportion of high-intensity training) was characterized by a cyclic progressive increase in training load, the training volume ranged from 7.5 to 10.76 h·wk-1, and pyramidal TID was used. Block periodization improved maximum oxygen uptake (VO2max), peak aerobic power, lactate, and ventilatory thresholds, while traditional periodization improved VO2max, peak aerobic power, and lactate thresholds. In addition, a day-by-day programming approach improved VO2max and ventilatory thresholds. CONCLUSIONS No evidence is currently available favoring a specific periodization model during 8 to 12 weeks in trained road cyclists. However, few studies have examined seasonal impact of different periodization models in a systematic way.
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Loureiro M, Nakamura FY, Ramos A, Coutinho P, Ribeiro J, Clemente FM, Mesquita I, Afonso J. Ongoing Bidirectional Feedback between Planning and Assessment in Educational Contexts: A Narrative Review. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:12068. [PMID: 36231369 PMCID: PMC9564391 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph191912068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2022] [Revised: 09/22/2022] [Accepted: 09/22/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Quality in education is one of the 17 goals in the United Nations' sustainable agenda for 2030, presupposing careful planning and assessment of learning. Traditional planning in sports education (either in training or school settings) largely adopts pre-determined learning sequences and temporal milestones that, in theory, enhance the learning process. However, learning is a context-dependent, non-linear process with considerable intra- and interindividual variability, whereby planning and assessment should also be non-linear. In this narrative review, the main findings suggest that the specific teaching or training contents and their relative (i.e., ordering or sequencing) and absolute timing (i.e., the specific time point where certain learning or adaptations are expected) should vary depending on the learners and the context. In a process-oriented perspective, this requires flexible planning and the establishment of ongoing bidirectional links between planning and assessment. In this framework, assessment should be a flexible, evolving, and daily pedagogical tool instead of a set of formal checkpoints. We further explored how planning and assessment could be linked to provide an ongoing feedback loop that respects the individuality of each learner and its context, and therefore hope this review helps bring about a change in current planning and assessment paradigms in sports education.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manuel Loureiro
- Centre for Research, Education, Innovation, and Intervention in Sport (CIFI2D), Faculty of Sport of the University of Porto (FADEUP), Rua Dr. Plácido da Costa 91, 4200-450 Porto, Portugal
| | - Fábio Yuzo Nakamura
- Research Centre in Sports Sciences, Health Sciences and Human Development (CIDESD), University of Maia (ISMAI), Av. Carlos de Oliveira Campos, 4475-690 Maia, Portugal
| | - Ana Ramos
- Centre for Research, Education, Innovation, and Intervention in Sport (CIFI2D), Faculty of Sport of the University of Porto (FADEUP), Rua Dr. Plácido da Costa 91, 4200-450 Porto, Portugal
| | - Patrícia Coutinho
- Centre for Research, Education, Innovation, and Intervention in Sport (CIFI2D), Faculty of Sport of the University of Porto (FADEUP), Rua Dr. Plácido da Costa 91, 4200-450 Porto, Portugal
| | - João Ribeiro
- Centre for Research, Education, Innovation, and Intervention in Sport (CIFI2D), Faculty of Sport of the University of Porto (FADEUP), Rua Dr. Plácido da Costa 91, 4200-450 Porto, Portugal
- Football Department, Lusophone University of Porto, 4000-098 Porto, Portugal
| | - Filipe Manuel Clemente
- Escola Superior Desporto e Lazer, Instituto Politécnico de Viana do Castelo, Rua Escola Industrial e Comercial de Nun’Álvares, 4900-347 Viana do Castelo, Portugal
- Research Center in Sports Performance, Recreation, Innovation and Technology (SPRINT), 4960-320 Melgaço, Portugal
- Instituto de Telecomunicações, Delegação da Covilhã, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Isabel Mesquita
- Centre for Research, Education, Innovation, and Intervention in Sport (CIFI2D), Faculty of Sport of the University of Porto (FADEUP), Rua Dr. Plácido da Costa 91, 4200-450 Porto, Portugal
| | - José Afonso
- Centre for Research, Education, Innovation, and Intervention in Sport (CIFI2D), Faculty of Sport of the University of Porto (FADEUP), Rua Dr. Plácido da Costa 91, 4200-450 Porto, Portugal
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Genetic profiles to identify talents in elite endurance athletes and professional football players. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0274880. [PMID: 36112609 PMCID: PMC9480996 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0274880] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2022] [Accepted: 09/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The genetic profile that is needed to identify talents has been studied extensively in recent years. The main objective of this investigation was to approach, for the first time, the study of genetic variants in several polygenic profiles and their role in elite endurance and professional football performance by comparing the allelic and genotypic frequencies to the non-athlete population. In this study, genotypic and allelic frequencies were determined in 452 subjects: 292 professional athletes (160 elite endurance athletes and 132 professional football players) and 160 non-athlete subjects. Genotyping of polymorphisms in liver metabolisers (CYP2D6, GSTM1, GSTP and GSTT), iron metabolism and energy efficiency (HFE, AMPD1 and PGC1a), cardiorespiratory fitness (ACE, NOS3, ADRA2A, ADRB2 and BDKRB2) and muscle injuries (ACE, ACTN3, AMPD1, CKM and MLCK) was performed by Polymerase Chain Reaction-Single Nucleotide Primer Extension (PCR-SNPE). The combination of the polymorphisms for the “optimal” polygenic profile was quantified using the genotype score (GS) and total genotype score (TGS). Statistical differences were found in the genetic distributions between professional athletes and the non-athlete population in liver metabolism, iron metabolism and energy efficiency, and muscle injuries (p<0.001). The binary logistic regression model showed a favourable OR (odds ratio) of being a professional athlete against a non-athlete in liver metabolism (OR: 1.96; 95% CI: 1.28–3.01; p = 0.002), iron metabolism and energy efficiency (OR: 2.21; 95% CI: 1.42–3.43; p < 0.001), and muscle injuries (OR: 2.70; 95% CI: 1.75–4.16; p < 0.001) in the polymorphisms studied. Genetic distribution in professional athletes as regards endurance (professional cyclists and elite runners) and professional football players shows genetic selection in these sports disciplines.
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Augustus AN, Zizzi S, Minkler T, Lindauer C. Mindfulness for the Moment: Adapting Interventions for the Period of the Sport Season. JOURNAL OF SPORT PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION 2022. [DOI: 10.1080/21520704.2022.2103222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Andrew N. Augustus
- Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology, West Virginia University, Morgantown, West Virginia, USA
| | - Samuel Zizzi
- Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology, West Virginia University, Morgantown, West Virginia, USA
| | - Thomas Minkler
- Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology, West Virginia University, Morgantown, West Virginia, USA
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Varillas-Delgado D, Del Coso J, Gutiérrez-Hellín J, Aguilar-Navarro M, Muñoz A, Maestro A, Morencos E. Genetics and sports performance: the present and future in the identification of talent for sports based on DNA testing. Eur J Appl Physiol 2022; 122:1811-1830. [PMID: 35428907 PMCID: PMC9012664 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-022-04945-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2021] [Accepted: 03/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The impact of genetics on physiology and sports performance is one of the most debated research aspects in sports sciences. Nearly 200 genetic polymorphisms have been found to influence sports performance traits, and over 20 polymorphisms may condition the status of the elite athlete. However, with the current evidence, it is certainly too early a stage to determine how to use genotyping as a tool for predicting exercise/sports performance or improving current methods of training. Research on this topic presents methodological limitations such as the lack of measurement of valid exercise performance phenotypes that make the study results difficult to interpret. Additionally, many studies present an insufficient cohort of athletes, or their classification as elite is dubious, which may introduce expectancy effects. Finally, the assessment of a progressively higher number of polymorphisms in the studies and the introduction of new analysis tools, such as the total genotype score (TGS) and genome-wide association studies (GWAS), have produced a considerable advance in the power of the analyses and a change from the study of single variants to determine pathways and systems associated with performance. The purpose of the present study was to comprehensively review evidence on the impact of genetics on endurance- and power-based exercise performance to clearly determine the potential utility of genotyping for detecting sports talent, enhancing training, or preventing exercise-related injuries, and to present an overview of recent research that has attempted to correct the methodological issues found in previous investigations.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Varillas-Delgado
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Universidad Francisco de Vitoria, Pozuelo de Alarcón, 28223, Madrid, Spain.
| | - Juan Del Coso
- Centre for Sport Studies, Rey Juan Carlos University, Fuenlabrada, 28933, Madrid, Spain
| | - Jorge Gutiérrez-Hellín
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Universidad Francisco de Vitoria, Pozuelo de Alarcón, 28223, Madrid, Spain
| | - Millán Aguilar-Navarro
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Universidad Francisco de Vitoria, Pozuelo de Alarcón, 28223, Madrid, Spain
| | - Alejandro Muñoz
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Universidad Francisco de Vitoria, Pozuelo de Alarcón, 28223, Madrid, Spain
| | | | - Esther Morencos
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Universidad Francisco de Vitoria, Pozuelo de Alarcón, 28223, Madrid, Spain
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Almquist NW, Eriksen HB, Wilhelmsen M, Hamarsland H, Ing S, Ellefsen S, Sandbakk Ø, Rønnestad BR, Skovereng K. No Differences Between 12 Weeks of Block- vs. Traditional-Periodized Training in Performance Adaptations in Trained Cyclists. Front Physiol 2022; 13:837634. [PMID: 35299664 PMCID: PMC8921659 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2022.837634] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2021] [Accepted: 01/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of 12 weeks load-matched block periodization (BP, n = 14), using weekly concentration of high- (HIT), moderate- (MIT), and low- (LIT) intensity training, with traditional periodization (TP, n = 16) using a weekly, cyclic progressive increase in training load of HIT-, MIT-, and LIT-sessions in trained cyclists (peak oxygen uptake: 58 ± 8 ml·kg−1·min−1). Red blood cell volume increased 10 ± 16% (p = 0.029) more in BP compared to TP, while capillaries around type I fibers increased 20 ± 12% (p = 0.002) more in TP compared to BP from Pre to Post12. No other group differences were found in time-trial (TT) performances or muscular-, or hematological adaptations. However, both groups improved 5 and 40-min TT power by 9 ± 9% (p < 0.001) and 8 ± 9% (p < 0.001), maximal aerobic power (Wmax) and power output (PO) at 4 mmol·L−1 blood lactate (W4mmol), by 6 ± 7 (p = 0.001) and 10 ± 12% (p = 0.001), and gross efficiency (GE) in a semi-fatigued state by 0.5 ± 1.1%-points (p = 0.026). In contrast, GE in fresh state and VO2peak were unaltered in both groups. The muscle protein content of β-hydroxyacyl (HAD) increased by 55 ± 58% in TP only, while both TP and BP increased the content of cytochrome c oxidase subunit IV (COXIV) by 72 ± 34%. Muscle enzyme activities of citrate synthase (CS) and phosphofructokinase (PFK) were unaltered. TP increased capillary-to-fiber ratio and capillary around fiber (CAF) type I by 36 ± 15% (p < 0.001) and 17 ± 8% (p = 0.025), respectively, while BP increased capillary density (CD) by 28 ± 24% (p = 0.048) from Pre to Post12. The present study shows no difference in performance between BP and “best practice”-TP of endurance training intensities using a cyclic, progressively increasing training load in trained cyclists. However, hematological and muscle capillary adaptations may differ.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicki Winfield Almquist
- Section for Health and Exercise Physiology, Inland Norway University of Applied Sciences, Lillehammer, Norway.,Centre for Elite Sports Research, Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Hanne Berg Eriksen
- Section for Health and Exercise Physiology, Inland Norway University of Applied Sciences, Lillehammer, Norway
| | - Malene Wilhelmsen
- Section for Health and Exercise Physiology, Inland Norway University of Applied Sciences, Lillehammer, Norway
| | - Håvard Hamarsland
- Section for Health and Exercise Physiology, Inland Norway University of Applied Sciences, Lillehammer, Norway
| | - Steven Ing
- Centre for Elite Sports Research, Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Stian Ellefsen
- Section for Health and Exercise Physiology, Inland Norway University of Applied Sciences, Lillehammer, Norway
| | - Øyvind Sandbakk
- Centre for Elite Sports Research, Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Bent R Rønnestad
- Section for Health and Exercise Physiology, Inland Norway University of Applied Sciences, Lillehammer, Norway
| | - Knut Skovereng
- Centre for Elite Sports Research, Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
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Stone MH, Hornsby WG, Haff GG, Fry AC, Suarez DG, Liu J, Gonzalez-Rave JM, Pierce KC. Periodization and Block Periodization in Sports: Emphasis on Strength-Power Training-A Provocative and Challenging Narrative. J Strength Cond Res 2021; 35:2351-2371. [PMID: 34132223 DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000004050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
ABSTRACT Stone, MH, Hornsby, WG, Haff, GG, Fry, AC, Suarez, DG, Liu, J, Gonzalez-Rave, JM, and Pierce, KC. Periodization and block periodization in sports: emphasis on strength-power training-a provocative and challenging narrative. J Strength Cond Res 35(8): 2351-2371, 2021-Periodization can be defined as a logical sequential, phasic method of manipulating fitness and recovery phases to increase the potential for achieving specific performance goals while minimizing the potential for nonfunctional over-reaching, overtraining, and injury. Periodization deals with the micromanagement of timelines and fitness phases and is cyclic in nature. On the other hand, programming deals with the micromanagement of the training process and deals with exercise selection, volume, intensity, etc. Evidence indicates that a periodized training process coupled with appropriate programming can produce superior athletic enhancement compared with nonperiodized process. There are 2 models of periodization, traditional and block. Traditional can take different forms (i.e., reverse). Block periodization has 2 subtypes, single goal or factor (individual sports) and multiple goals or factors (team sports). Both models have strengths and weaknesses but can be "tailored" through creative programming to produce excellent results for specific sports.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael H Stone
- Center of Excellence for Sport Science and Coach Education, SERK, East Tennessee State University, Johnson City, Tennessee
| | - William G Hornsby
- College of Physical Activity and Sport Sciences, West Virginia University, Morgantown, West Virginia
| | - G Gregory Haff
- Center for Exercise and Sport Sciences Research, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, Washington, Australia
| | - Andrew C Fry
- Jayhawk Athletic Performance Laboratory, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas
| | - Dylan G Suarez
- Center of Excellence for Sport Science and Coach Education, SERK, East Tennessee State University, Johnson City, Tennessee
| | - Junshi Liu
- Institute of Human Factors and Ergonomics, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, China
| | - Jose M Gonzalez-Rave
- Sports Training Laboratory, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Castilla la Mancha, Spain; and
| | - Kyle C Pierce
- Department of Kinesiology and Health Science, Louisiana State University Shreveport, Shreveport, Louisiana
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An Attempt to Predict Changes in Heart Rate Variability in the Training Intensification Process among Cyclists. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:ijerph18147636. [PMID: 34300087 PMCID: PMC8303199 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18147636] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2021] [Revised: 07/07/2021] [Accepted: 07/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Individual changes in resting heart rate variability (HRV) parameters were assessed in seven Polish cyclists during a training process consisting of: a six-week period (P1) of predominantly low- and moderate-intensity training (L-MIT) and a six-week period (P2) where the proportion of high-intensity interval training (HIT) increased. Daily recorded HRV parameters included high-frequency spectral power (HF), square root of the mean squared difference between successive normal-to-normal RR intervals (RMSSD), and standard deviation of normal-to-normal RR intervals (SDNN). In each training microcycle, the average values of HFav, RMSSDav, and SDNNav were calculated individually for each participant. In three cyclists, HF was higher in P2 compared to P1, whereas in one cyclist, HF was higher in P1 than in P2. Each of these four cyclists presented an individual correlation between the average daily duration HIT effort in training microcycles (HITav) and HFav. Cyclists with low baseline values of HRV parameters showed increased activity of the parasympathetic nervous system, while in the cyclist with high baseline values of HRV parameters, an opposite change was observed. In conclusion, changes in resting HRV parameters between period P1 and P2 can be individualised. In the investigated group, it was possible to predict how HRV would change as a result of training intensification on the basis of HRV baseline values.
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Personalized, Evidence-Informed Training Plans and Exercise Prescriptions for Performance, Fitness and Health. Sports Med 2021; 51:1805-1813. [PMID: 34143410 PMCID: PMC8363526 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-021-01495-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
A training plan, or an exercise prescription, is the point where we translate sport and exercise science into practice. As in medicine, good practice requires writing a training plan or prescribing an exercise programme based on the best current scientific evidence. A key issue, however, is that a training plan or exercise prescription is typically a mix of many interacting interventions (e.g. exercises and nutritional recommendations) that additionally change over time due to periodisation or tapering. Thus, it is virtually impossible to base a complex long-term training plan fully on scientific evidence. We, therefore, speak of evidence-informed training plans and exercise prescriptions to highlight that only some of the underlying decisions are made using an evidence-based decision approach. Another challenge is that the adaptation to a given, e.g. endurance or resistance training programme is often highly variable. Until biomarkers for trainability are identified, we must therefore continue to test athletes, clients, or patients, and monitor training variables via a training log to determine whether an individual sufficiently responds to a training intervention or else re-plan. Based on these ideas, we propose a subjective, pragmatic six-step approach that details how to write a training plan or exercise prescription that is partially based on scientific evidence. Finally, we advocate an athlete, client and patient-centered approach whereby an individual’s needs and abilities are the main consideration behind all decision-making. This implies that sometimes the most effective form of training is eschewed if the athlete, client or patient has other wishes.
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12
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Hermosilla F, González-Rave JM, Del Castillo JA, Pyne DB. Periodization and Programming for Individual 400 m Medley Swimmers. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:6474. [PMID: 34203853 PMCID: PMC8296310 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18126474] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2021] [Revised: 06/09/2021] [Accepted: 06/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Knowledge in the scientific domain of individual medley (IM) swimming training over a competitive season is limited. The purpose of this study was to propose a detailed coaching framework incorporating the key elements of a periodized training regimen for a 400 m IM swimmer. This framework was based on the available coaching and scientific literature and the practical experience and expertise of the collaborating authors. The season has been divided in two or three macrocycles, further divided in three mesocycles each (six or nine mesocycles in total), in alignment with the two or three main competitions in each macrocycle. The principal training contents to develop during the season expressed in blood lactate zones are: aerobic training (~2 mmol·L-1), lactate threshold pace (~4 mmol·L-1) and VO2max (maximum oxygen uptake) (~6 mmol·L-1). Strength training should focus on maximum strength, power and speed endurance during the season. Altitude training camps can be placed strategically within the training season to promote physiological adaptation and improvements in performance. A well-constructed technical framework will permit development of training strategies for the 400 m IM swimmer to improve both training and competitive performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francisco Hermosilla
- Sport Training Lab, University of Castilla-La Mancha, 45008 Toledo, Spain;
- Facultad de Ciencias de la Vida y la Naturaleza, Universidad Nebrija, 28248 Madrid, Spain
| | | | - José Antonio Del Castillo
- Catalonian Swimming Federation and High Performance Center, Alcalde Barnils, Av. 3-5, Sant Cugat del Vallès, 08174 Barcelona, Spain;
| | - David B. Pyne
- Research Institute for Sport and Exercise, Faculty of Health, University of Canberra, Bruce, ACT 261, Australia;
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13
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Stochi de Oliveira R, Borin JP. Monitoring and Behavior of Biomotor Skills in Futsal Athletes During a Season. Front Psychol 2021; 12:661262. [PMID: 34177714 PMCID: PMC8220288 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.661262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2021] [Accepted: 04/28/2021] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Futsal is a sport that presents alternation of high and low intensity moments, which lacks investigations regarding the effects of the organization of the training load on biomotor skills. In this sense, this study aims to verify the monitoring of the training load throughout the season and the behavior of biomotor skills in futsal athletes. Twelve futsal athletes (24.5 ± 4.9 years, 1.79 ± 0.6 m, 72.4 ± 9.4 kg, and 9.4 ± 4.3% fat) from the adult category who competed in the first division of the Paulista championship participated in the study. Throughout the season the internal training load (ITL) was calculated, through the relationship between volume (minutes) and the rate of perceived exertion (RPE), monotony, and training strain. The training periods were divided into: preparatory, competitive and competitive II, for a total of four moments of evaluation: M1: at the beginning of the preparatory period; M2: 5th week, at the end of the preparatory period; M3: 13th week, in the middle of the competitive period; and M4: at the start of the competitive period II. The tests used were: (i) Power of lower limbs: counter movement jump (CMJ); (ii) Displacement speed, over the 10-meter distance (V10m); and (iii) Aerobic power, by the Carminatti test (T-CAR). The variables analyzed were compared at the different moments of evaluation, normally distributed variables (Volume, S-RPE, strain, and monotony) were analyzed using the ANOVA ONE-WAY variance test followed by the Tukey. Variables that did not show normality (lower limb power, speed, and aerobic power) were compared using the Friedman test followed by Dunn's multiple comparisons test and was presented by median and interquartile interval. The significance value adopted was p < 0.05. A significant improvement (p < 0.05) was observed in the power of lower limbs from M1 (37.5 ± 5.5 cm) to M3 (40.8 ± 5.7 cm), from M2 (38.9 ± 5.5 cm) to M3 (40.8 ± 5.7 cm), and from M1 (37.5 ± 5.5 cm) to M4 (40.2 ± 5.4 cm). Aerobic power showed a significant increase (p < 0.05) from M1 (12.1 ± 0.7 km/h) to M3 (12.7 ± 7 km/h) and from M1 (12.1 ± 0.7 km/h) to M4 (12.73 ± 1.04 km/h). The internal training load showed a difference between competitive I and II in relation to the preparatory period (p < 0.05). In conclusion, the proposed training organization was sufficient to improve the power of the lower limbs and the aerobic power.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ricardo Stochi de Oliveira
- Max Planck University Center (UNIMAX) - Sports and Physical Education Department, Indaiatuba, Brazil.,Sports Training Theory and Methodology Group (GTMTD), Campinas, Brazil
| | - João Paulo Borin
- Sports Training Theory and Methodology Group (GTMTD), Campinas, Brazil.,University of Campinas (UNICAMP) - Physical Education College, Campinas, Brazil
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Training Intensity Distribution, Training Volume, and Periodization Models in Elite Swimmers: A Systematic Review. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2021; 16:913-926. [PMID: 33952709 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2020-0906] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2020] [Revised: 01/23/2021] [Accepted: 01/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
A well-planned periodized approach allows swimmers to achieve peak performance at the major national and international competitions. PURPOSE To identify the main characteristics of endurance training for highly trained swimmers described by the training intensity distribution (TID), volume, and periodization models. METHODS The electronic databases Scopus, PubMed, and Web of Science were searched using a comprehensive list of relevant terms. Studies that investigated the effect of the periodization of training in swimming, with the training load (volume, TID) and periodization reported, were included in the systematic review. RESULTS A total of 3487 studies were identified, and after removal of duplicates and elimination of papers based on title and abstract screening, 17 articles remained. A further 8 articles were excluded after full text review, leaving a final total of 9 studies in the systematic review. The evidence levels were 1b for intervention studies (n = 3) and 2b for (observational) retrospective studies (n = 6). The sprint swimmers typically followed a polarized and threshold TID, the middle-distance swimmers followed a threshold and pyramidal TID, and the long-distance swimmers primarily followed a pyramidal TID. The periodization model identified in the majority of studies selected is characterized by wave-like cycles in units like mesocycles to promote physiological adaptations and skill acquisition. CONCLUSIONS Highly trained swimmers follow a training volume and TID based on their primary event. There is a need for further experimental studies on the effects of block and reverse periodization models on swimming performance. Although observational studies of training have limited evidence, it is unclear whether a different training/periodization approach would yield better results.
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15
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Ambroży T, Rydzik Ł, Obmiński Z, Klimek AT, Serafin N, Litwiniuk A, Czaja R, Czarny W. The Impact of Reduced Training Activity of Elite Kickboxers on Physical Fitness, Body Build, and Performance during Competitions. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:4342. [PMID: 33923913 PMCID: PMC8073118 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18084342] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2021] [Revised: 04/15/2021] [Accepted: 04/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Background: Kickboxing is a combat sport where athletes require constant supervision of a coach. The outbreak of the pandemic caused by SARS-CoV-2 has led to a crisis in many sectors, including sport. Global efforts to limit the spread of the pathogen resulted in temporary lockdowns that limited sporting activity, thus deteriorating athletes' physical fitness. Methods: The participants included 20 kickboxers competing at the international level. Their physical fitness was evaluated based on the test developed by the International Committee on the Standardization of Physical Fitness Test (ICSPFT) and their body build was assessed using Tanita BC601 body composition monitor and a body height meter. Differences between physical fitness before the COVID-19 outbreak and during the pandemic after re-opening sports facilities were evaluated. Results: Temporary closing of sports clubs has led to the increase in body mass of the participants by 2.65 kg on average and significantly deteriorated physical fitness. Conclusions: Temporary closing of sports clubs and restrictions on physical activity aimed at containing the spread of COVID-19 caused a significant reduction in physical fitness and increased body mass of the participants. This is likely to cause worse performance in the nearest competitions and have a negative impact on the athletes' health status and immunity to diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tadeusz Ambroży
- Institute of Sports Sciences, University of Physical Education, 31-571 Krakow, Poland;
| | - Łukasz Rydzik
- Institute of Sports Sciences, University of Physical Education, 31-571 Krakow, Poland;
| | - Zbigniew Obmiński
- Department of Endocrinology, Institute of Sport-National Research Institute, 01-982 Warsaw, Poland;
| | - Andrzej T. Klimek
- Department of Physiology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Physical Education and Sport, University of Physical Education in Kraków, 31-571 Kraków, Poland;
| | - Natalia Serafin
- Faculty of Physical Education and Sport, Institute of Social Sciences, University of Physical Education in Krakow, 31-571 Kraków, Poland;
| | - Artur Litwiniuk
- Faculty of Physical Education and Health in Biała Podlaska, Józef Piłsudski University of Physical Education, 00-809 Warsaw, Poland;
| | - Robert Czaja
- College of Medical Sciences, Institute of Physical Culture Studies, University of Rzeszow, 35-310 Rzeszów, Poland; (R.C.); (W.C.)
| | - Wojciech Czarny
- College of Medical Sciences, Institute of Physical Culture Studies, University of Rzeszow, 35-310 Rzeszów, Poland; (R.C.); (W.C.)
- Department of Sports Kinanthropology, Faculty of Sports, Universtiy of Presov, 080-01 Prešov, Slovakia
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16
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Kataoka R, Vasenina E, Loenneke J, Buckner SL. Periodization: Variation in the Definition and Discrepancies in Study Design. Sports Med 2021; 51:625-651. [PMID: 33405190 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-020-01414-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/20/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Over the past several decades, periodization has been widely accepted as the gold standard of training theory. Within the literature, there are numerous definitions for periodization, which makes it difficult to study. When examining the proposed definitions and related studies on periodization, problems arise in the following domains: (1) periodization has been proposed to serve as the macro-management of the training process concerning the annual plan, yet research on long-term effects is scarce; (2) periodization and programming are being used interchangeably in research; and (3) training is not periodized alongside other stressors such as sport (i.e., only resistance training is being performed without the inclusion of sport). Overall, the state of the literature suggests that the inability to define periodization makes the statement of its superiority difficult to experimentally test. This paper discusses the proposed definitions of periodization and the study designs which have been employed to examine the concept.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryo Kataoka
- USF Muscle Lab, Exercise Science Program, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA
| | - Ecaterina Vasenina
- USF Muscle Lab, Exercise Science Program, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA
| | - Jeremy Loenneke
- Department of Health, Exercise Science, and Recreation Management, Kevser Ermin Applied Physiology Laboratory, The University of Mississippi, University, MS, USA
| | - Samuel L Buckner
- USF Muscle Lab, Exercise Science Program, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA.
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17
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Karlsen T, Solli GS, Samdal ST, Sandbakk Ø. Intensity Control During Block-Periodized High-Intensity Training: Heart Rate and Lactate Concentration During Three Annual Seasons in World-Class Cross-Country Skiers. Front Sports Act Living 2020; 2:549407. [PMID: 33345112 PMCID: PMC7739818 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2020.549407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2020] [Accepted: 09/14/2020] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose: To describe heart rate (HR) and blood lactate (Bla−) responses during high-intensity interval training (HIT) in a long-term block-periodized HIT regimen in world-class cross-country (XC) skiers. Methods: Data were collected in 14 world-class female XC skiers (aged 25 ± 5 years; body mass, 60.4 ± 6.5 kg; and maximal HR, 194 ± 8 beats · min−1) throughout three entire seasons. The HR and Bla− values were determined at the end of 572 intervals performed during 63 sessions and 17 HIT blocks utilizing different exercise modes: running, running with poles, and skiing (on-snow and roller ski) with classic and skating techniques. Results: The mean HR was 91 ± 3% of HRmax with a corresponding Bla− of 7.3 ± 2.1 mmol · L−1. The average HR and Bla− values were relatively similar across the different exercise modes, except for a lower HR (~90 vs. 92% of HRmax) for on-snow and roller ski classical skiing and lower Bla− values (5.9 vs. 7.0–7.8 mmol · L−1) for on-snow classical skiing compared to the other modes, both P < 0.05. An increase in HR and Bla− was observed from interval working periods 1 to 3 (90–92% of HRmax and 6.5–7.7 mmol · L−1) and further from 3 to 5 (92–93% of HRmax and 7.7–9.0 mmol · L−1), all P < 0.05. Conclusions: We describe long-term use of HIT-block periodization among world-class XC skiers who achieved target HR and Bla− levels in all six exercise modes employed. According to athletes and coaches, the key to successful blocks was intensity control to allow for high-quality HIT sessions throughout the entire HIT block.
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Affiliation(s)
- Trine Karlsen
- Faculty of Nursing and Health Sciences, Nord University, Bodø, Norway
| | - Guro Strøm Solli
- Department of Sports Science and Physical Education, Faculty of Education and Arts, Nord University, Bodø, Norway.,Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Centre for Elite Sports Research, NTNU, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | | | - Øyvind Sandbakk
- Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Centre for Elite Sports Research, NTNU, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
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18
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Buckner SL, Jessee MB, Mouser JG, Dankel SJ, Mattocks KT, Bell ZW, Abe T, Loenneke JP. The Basics of Training for Muscle Size and Strength: A Brief Review on the Theory. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2020; 52:645-653. [PMID: 31652235 DOI: 10.1249/mss.0000000000002171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The periodization of resistance exercise is often touted as the most effective strategy for optimizing muscle size and strength adaptations. This narrative persists despite a lack of experimental evidence to demonstrate its superiority. In addition, the general adaptation syndrome, which provides the theoretical framework underlying periodization, does not appear to provide a strong physiological rationale that periodization is necessary. Hans Selye conducted a series of rodent studies which used toxic stressors to facilitate the development of the general adaptation syndrome. To our knowledge, normal exercise in humans has never been shown to produce a general adaptation syndrome. We question whether there is any physiological rationale that a periodized training approach would facilitate greater adaptations compared with nonperiodized approaches employing progressive overload. The purpose of this article is to briefly review currently debated topics within strength and conditioning and provide some practical insight regarding the implications these reevaluations of the literature may have for resistance exercise and periodization. In addition, we provide some suggestions for the continued advancement within the field of strength and conditioning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel L Buckner
- USF Muscle Lab, Exercise Science Program, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL
| | - Matthew B Jessee
- Department of Health, Exercise Science, and Recreation Management, University of Mississippi, University, MS
| | - J Grant Mouser
- Department of Kinesiology and Health Promotion, Troy University, Troy, AL
| | - Scott J Dankel
- Department of Health and Exercise Science, Exercise Physiology Laboratory, Rowan University, Glassboro, NJ
| | | | - Zachary W Bell
- Department of Health, Exercise Science, and Recreation Management, Kevser Ermin Applied Physiology Laboratory, University of Mississippi, University, MS
| | - Takashi Abe
- Department of Health, Exercise Science, and Recreation Management, Kevser Ermin Applied Physiology Laboratory, University of Mississippi, University, MS
| | - Jeremy P Loenneke
- Department of Health, Exercise Science, and Recreation Management, Kevser Ermin Applied Physiology Laboratory, University of Mississippi, University, MS
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19
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Sprint and endurance training in relation to redox balance, inflammatory status and biomarkers of aging in master athletes. Nitric Oxide 2020; 102:42-51. [DOI: 10.1016/j.niox.2020.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2019] [Revised: 05/24/2020] [Accepted: 05/26/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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20
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Mølmen KS, Øfsteng SJ, Rønnestad BR. Block periodization of endurance training - a systematic review and meta-analysis. Open Access J Sports Med 2019; 10:145-160. [PMID: 31802956 PMCID: PMC6802561 DOI: 10.2147/oajsm.s180408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2019] [Accepted: 09/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Block periodization (BP) has been proposed as an alternative to traditional (TRAD) organization of the annual training plan for endurance athletes. Objective To our knowledge, this is the first meta-analysis to evaluate the effect BP of endurance training on endurance performance and factors determinative for endurance performance in trained- to well-trained athletes. Methods The PubMed, SPORTdiscus and Web of Science databases were searched from inception to August 2019. Studies were included if the following criteria were met: 1) the study examined a block-periodized endurance training intervention; 2) the study had a one-, two or multiple group-, crossover- or case-study design; 3) the study assessed at least one key endurance variable before and after the intervention period. A total of 2905 studies were screened, where 20 records met the eligibility criteria. Methodological quality for each study was assessed using the PEDro scale. Six studies were pooled to perform meta-analysis for maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) and maximal power output (Wmax) during an incremental exercise test to exhaustion. Due to a lower number of studies and heterogenous measurements, other performance measures were systematically reviewed. Results The meta-analyses revealed small favorable effects for BP compared to TRAD regarding changes in VO2max (standardized mean difference, 0.40; 95% CI=0.02, 0.79) and Wmax (standardized mean difference, 0.28; 95% CI=0.01, 0.54). For changes in endurance performance and workload at different exercise thresholds BP generally revealed moderate- to large-effect sizes compared to TRAD. Conclusion BP is an adequate, alternative training strategy to TRAD as evidenced by superior training effects on VO2max and Wmax in athletes. The reviewed studies show promising effects for BP of endurance training; however, these results must be considered with some caution due to small studies with generally low methodological quality (mean PEDro score =3.7/10).
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Affiliation(s)
- Knut Sindre Mølmen
- Section for Health and Exercise Physiology, Inland Norway University of Applied Sciences, Lillehammer, Norway
| | - Sjur Johansen Øfsteng
- Section for Health and Exercise Physiology, Inland Norway University of Applied Sciences, Lillehammer, Norway
| | - Bent R Rønnestad
- Section for Health and Exercise Physiology, Inland Norway University of Applied Sciences, Lillehammer, Norway
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21
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Reply to Kiely et al.: Comment on: "Biological Background of Block Periodized Endurance Training: A Review". Sports Med 2019; 49:1479-1480. [PMID: 31054094 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-019-01115-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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22
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Kiely J, Pickering C, Halperin I. Comment on "Biological Background of Block Periodized Endurance Training: A Review". Sports Med 2019; 49:1475-1477. [PMID: 31054093 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-019-01114-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- John Kiely
- Institute of Coaching and Performance, School of Sport and Wellbeing, University of Central Lancashire, Preston, PR1 2HE, UK.
| | - Craig Pickering
- Institute of Coaching and Performance, School of Sport and Wellbeing, University of Central Lancashire, Preston, PR1 2HE, UK.,Exercise and Nutritional Genomics Research Centre, DNAFit Ltd, London, UK
| | - Israel Halperin
- School of Public Health, Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel.,Sylvan Adams Sports Institute, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
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23
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Etxebarria N, Mujika I, Pyne DB. Training and Competition Readiness in Triathlon. Sports (Basel) 2019; 7:sports7050101. [PMID: 31035719 PMCID: PMC6571715 DOI: 10.3390/sports7050101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2019] [Revised: 04/25/2019] [Accepted: 04/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Triathlon is characterized by the multidisciplinary nature of the sport where swimming, cycling, and running are completed sequentially in different events, such as the sprint, Olympic, long-distance, and Ironman formats. The large number of training sessions and overall volume undertaken by triathletes to improve fitness and performance can also increase the risk of injury, illness, or excessive fatigue. Short- and medium-term individualized training plans, periodization strategies, and work/rest balance are necessary to minimize interruptions to training due to injury, illness, or maladaptation. Even in the absence of health and wellbeing concerns, it is unclear whether cellular signals triggered by multiple training stimuli that drive training adaptations each day interfere with each other. Distribution of training intensity within and between different sessions is an important aspect of training. Both internal (perceived stress) and external loads (objective metrics) should be considered when monitoring training load. Incorporating strength training to complement the large body of endurance work in triathlon can help avoid overuse injuries. We explore emerging trends and strategies from the latest literature and evidence-based knowledge for improving training readiness and performance during competition in triathlon.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naroa Etxebarria
- Research Institute for Sport & Exercise, University of Canberra, Bruce ACT 2601, Australia.
| | - Iñigo Mujika
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine and Nursing, University of the Basque Country, Leioa 48940, Basque.
- Exercise Science Laboratory, School of Kinesiology, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad Finis Terrae, Santiago, 7501015, Chile.
| | - David Bruce Pyne
- Research Institute for Sport & Exercise, University of Canberra, Bruce ACT 2601, Australia.
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24
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Solli GS, Tønnessen E, Sandbakk Ø. Block vs. Traditional Periodization of HIT: Two Different Paths to Success for the World's Best Cross-Country Skier. Front Physiol 2019; 10:375. [PMID: 31024338 PMCID: PMC6460991 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2019.00375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2019] [Accepted: 03/18/2019] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
In short-term studies, block periodization of high-intensity training (HIT) has been shown to be an effective strategy that enhances performance and related physiological factors. However, long-term studies and detailed investigations of macro, meso, and micro-periodization of HIT blocks in world-class endurance athletes are currently lacking. In a recent study, we showed that the world’s most successful cross-country (XC) skier used two different periodization models with success throughout her career. One including extensive use of HIT blocks, namely BP, and one using a traditional method namely TRAD. In this study, we compare BP with TRAD in two comparable successful seasons and provide a detailed description of the annual use of HIT blocks in BP. The participant is the most-decorated winter Olympian, with 8 Olympic gold medals, 18 world championship titles, and 114 world cup victories. Training data was categorized by training form (endurance, strength, and speed), intensity [low (LIT), moderate (MIT), and HIT], and mode (running, cycling, and skiing/roller skiing). No significant difference was found in the total endurance training load between BP and TRAD. However, training volume in BP was lower compared to TRAD (15 ± 6 vs. 18 ± 7 h/wk, P = 0.001), mainly explained by less LIT (13 ± 5 vs. 15 ± 5 h/wk, P = 0.004). Lower volume of MIT was also performed in BP compared to TRAD (13 vs. 38 sessions/year), whereas the amount of HIT was higher in BP (157 vs. 77 sessions/year). While BP included high amounts of HIT already from the first preparation period, followed by a reduction toward the competition period, TRAD had a progressive increase in HIT toward the competition period. In BP, the athlete performed seven HIT blocks, varying from 7 to 11 days, each including 8–13 HIT sessions. This study provides novel insights into successful utilization of two different periodization models in the worlds best XC skier, and illustrates the macro, meso and micro- periodization of HIT blocks to increase the overall amount of HIT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guro Strøm Solli
- Department of Sports Science and Physical Education, Nord University, Bodø, Norway.,Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Centre for Elite Sports Research, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | | | - Øyvind Sandbakk
- Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Centre for Elite Sports Research, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
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Barbosa LP, Sousa CV, Sales MM, Olher RDR, Aguiar SS, Santos PA, Tiozzo E, Simões HG, Nikolaidis PT, Knechtle B. Celebrating 40 Years of Ironman: How the Champions Perform. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2019; 16:E1019. [PMID: 30897812 PMCID: PMC6466240 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph16061019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2019] [Revised: 03/13/2019] [Accepted: 03/16/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
We aimed to determine which discipline had the greater performance improvements in the history of Ironman triathlon in Hawaii and also which discipline had the greater influence in overall race time. Data from 1983 to 2018 of the top three women and men of each year who competed in the Ironman World Championship were included. In addition to exploratory data analyses, linear regressions between split times and years of achievement were performed. Further, a stepwise multiple linear regression was applied using total race time as the dependent variable and split times as the independent variables. Both women and men significantly improved their performances from 1983 to 2018 in the Ironman World Championship. Swimming had the largest difference in improvements between men and women (3.0% versus 12.1%, respectively). A negative and significant decrease in each discipline was identified for both women and men, with cycling being the discipline with the greatest reduction. The results from the stepwise multiple regression indicated that cycling was the discipline with the highest influence on overall race time for both sexes. Based on the findings of this study, cycling seems to be the Ironman triathlon discipline that most improved overall race times and is also the discipline with the greatest influence on the overall race time of elite men and women in the Ironman World Championship.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucas Pinheiro Barbosa
- Graduate Program in Physical Education, Catholic University of Brasília, 71966-700 Brasília, Brazil.
| | - Caio Victor Sousa
- Graduate Program in Physical Education, Catholic University of Brasília, 71966-700 Brasília, Brazil.
- Miller School of Medicine, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL 33124, USA.
| | | | - Rafael Dos Reis Olher
- Graduate Program in Physical Education, Catholic University of Brasília, 71966-700 Brasília, Brazil.
| | - Samuel Silva Aguiar
- Graduate Program in Physical Education, Catholic University of Brasília, 71966-700 Brasília, Brazil.
| | - Patrick Anderson Santos
- Graduate Program in Physical Education, Catholic University of Brasília, 71966-700 Brasília, Brazil.
| | - Eduard Tiozzo
- Miller School of Medicine, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL 33124, USA.
| | - Herbert Gustavo Simões
- Graduate Program in Physical Education, Catholic University of Brasília, 71966-700 Brasília, Brazil.
| | | | - Beat Knechtle
- Medbase St. Gallen Am Vadianplatz, 9001 St. Gallen, Switzerland.
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, 8006 Zurich, Switzerland.
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