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Barnhart WR, Cui T, Cui S, Ren Y, Ji F, He J. Exploring the prospective relationships between food addiction symptoms, weight bias internalization, and psychological distress in Chinese adolescents. Int J Eat Disord 2023; 56:2304-2314. [PMID: 37772767 DOI: 10.1002/eat.24066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2023] [Revised: 09/13/2023] [Accepted: 09/13/2023] [Indexed: 09/30/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Relationships exist between food addiction symptoms, weight bias internalization, and psychological distress, yet previous research is primarily cross-sectional with adults from Western contexts. We examined the prospective relationships between food addiction symptoms, weight bias internalization, and psychological distress in Chinese adolescents. METHODS Over three time points (Time 1, baseline; Time 2, 6-months; Time 3, 12-months) spanning 1 year, we examined cross-sectional and bi-directional relationships between food addiction symptoms, weight bias internalization, and psychological distress in Chinese adolescents (N = 589; aged 14-18 years at baseline). Pearson correlations and cross-lagged models examined the cross-sectional and longitudinal relationships between food addiction symptoms, weight bias internalization, and psychological distress. RESULTS Cross-sectional correlations suggested positive relationships between food addiction symptoms, weight bias internalization, and psychological distress at each time point. Regarding bi-directional relationships, higher psychological distress was associated with both higher weight bias internalization and higher food addiction symptoms at the following time points. However, food addiction symptoms and weight bias internalization were not prospectively associated. Time 2 psychological distress did not significantly mediate the relationship between Time 1 weight bias internalization and Time 3 food addiction symptoms. DISCUSSION Findings suggest no direct longitudinal link between food addiction symptoms and weight bias internalization and vice versa. However, findings do suggest that psychological distress is temporally associated with higher food addiction symptoms and weight bias internalization in Chinese adolescents. Targeting psychological distress may prove useful in treatments of food addiction symptoms and weight bias internalization in Chinese adolescents. PUBLIC SIGNIFICANCE Positive associations exist between food addiction symptoms, weight bias internalization, and psychological distress, but findings are largely cross-sectional and bound to adult populations from Western contexts. Using a longitudinal design in Chinese adolescents, findings suggested that baseline psychological distress was associated with higher food addiction symptoms and higher weight bias internalization at follow-up time points. Treatments targeting psychological distress may be helpful in reducing food addiction symptoms and weight bias internalization in Chinese adolescents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wesley R Barnhart
- Department of Psychology, Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, Ohio, USA
| | - Tianxiang Cui
- Department of Psychology, University of Macau, Taipa, Macau, China
| | - Shuqi Cui
- School of Humanities and Social Science, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shenzhen, China
| | - Yaoxiang Ren
- School of Humanities and Social Science, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shenzhen, China
| | - Feng Ji
- Department of Applied Psychology and Human Development, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Jinbo He
- School of Humanities and Social Science, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shenzhen, China
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Huang PC, Lee CH, Griffiths MD, O'Brien KS, Lin YC, Gan WY, Poon WC, Hung CH, Lee KH, Lin CY. Sequentially mediated effects of weight-related self-stigma and psychological distress in the association between perceived weight stigma and food addiction among Taiwanese university students: A cross-sectional study. J Eat Disord 2022; 10:177. [PMID: 36414956 PMCID: PMC9682751 DOI: 10.1186/s40337-022-00701-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2022] [Accepted: 11/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Weight-related stigma has negative physiological and psychological impacts on individuals' quality of life. Stigmatized individuals may experience higher psychological distress and therefore increase the potential risk to develop obesity and/or food addiction. The present study examined the associations and mediated effect between perceived weight stigma, weight-related self-stigma, and psychological distress in explaining food addiction among Taiwanese university students. METHODS All participants (n = 968) completed an online survey which included the Perceived Weight Stigma Questionnaire, Weight Self-Stigma Questionnaire, Depression, Anxiety, Stress Scale-21, and Yale Food Addiction Scale Version 2. RESULTS After controlling for demographic variables, significant associations were found in the paths from (1) perceived weight stigma to weight-related self-stigma ([Formula: see text] = 0.23), psychological distress ([Formula: see text] = 0.35), and food addiction ([Formula: see text] = 0.23); (2) weight-related self-stigma to psychological distress ([Formula: see text] = 0.52) and food addiction ([Formula: see text] = 0.59); and (3) psychological distress to food addiction ([Formula: see text] = 0.59) (all p-values < 0.001). The mediation model showed the sequential mediated effect of weight-related self-stigma and psychological distress in the association between perceived weight stigma and food addiction. CONCLUSIONS The results provide novel insights that weight-related self-stigma and psychological distress sequentially mediated the relationship between perceived weight stigma and food addiction among Taiwanese university students. The findings of the present study could be implemented into interventions that aim to reduce food addiction derived from weight-related stigma. Future studies should consider group analysis to consider confounding factors or other populations to provide more evidence regarding the mechanism of weight-related stigma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Po-Ching Huang
- Institute of Allied Health Sciences, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, No. 1, University Rd., East Dist., Tainan, 701401, Taiwan
| | - Chiu-Hsiang Lee
- Department of Nursing, Chung Shan Medical University, No. 110, Sec. 1, Jianguo N. Rd., South Dist., Taichung, 402306, Taiwan.,Department of Nursing, Chung Shan Medical University Hospital, No. 110, Sec. 1, Jianguo N. Rd., South Dist., Taichung, 402306, Taiwan
| | - Mark D Griffiths
- International Gaming Research Unit, Psychology Department, Nottingham Trent University, 50 Shakespeare Street, Nottingham, NG1 4FQ, UK
| | - Kerry S O'Brien
- School of Social Sciences, Faculty of Arts, Monash University, 20 Chancellors Walk, Clayton, VIC, 3800, Australia
| | - Yi-Ching Lin
- Department of Early Childhood and Family Education, National Taipei University of Education, No. 134, Sec. 2, Heping E. Rd., Da'an Dist., Taipei, 106320, Taiwan.
| | - Wan Ying Gan
- Department of Nutrition, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Wai Chuen Poon
- Sunway University Business School, Sunway University, Selangor Darul Ehsan, No. 5, Jalan Universiti, 47500, Bandar Sunway, Malaysia
| | - Ching-Hsia Hung
- Institute of Allied Health Sciences, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, No. 1, University Rd., East Dist., Tainan, 701401, Taiwan.,Department of Physical Therapy, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, No. 1, Daxue Rd., East Dist., Tainan, 701401, Taiwan
| | - Kuo-Hsin Lee
- Department of Emergency Medicine, E-Da Hospital, I-Shou University, No.1, Yida Rd, Yanchao District, Kaohsiung City, 824, Taiwan. .,School of Medicine, I-Shou University, No. 8, Yi-Da Road, Jiao-Su Village, Yan-Chao District, Kaohsiung City, 824, Taiwan.
| | - Chung-Ying Lin
- Institute of Allied Health Sciences, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, No. 1, University Rd., East Dist., Tainan, 701401, Taiwan. .,Department of Occupational Therapy, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, No. 1, University Rd., East Dist., Tainan, 701401, Taiwan. .,Department of Public Health, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, No. 1, University Rd., East Dist., Tainan, 701401, Taiwan. .,Biostatistics Consulting Center, National Cheng Kung University Hospital, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, No. 1, University Rd., East Dist., Tainan, 701401, Taiwan.
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Parnarouskis L, Jouppi RJ, Cummings JR, Gearhardt AN. A randomized study of effects of obesity framing on weight stigma. Obesity (Silver Spring) 2021; 29:1625-1634. [PMID: 34431611 PMCID: PMC10826923 DOI: 10.1002/oby.23247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2020] [Revised: 06/04/2021] [Accepted: 06/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Growing evidence suggests highly processed foods may trigger an addictive-like process, which is associated with obesity. Other research suggests an addictive-like process occurs in response to eating itself, rather than specific foods. Addiction-based obesity explanations raise concerns about double stigmatization of people with obesity and addiction. This study compared effects of obesity framings on external and internalized weight stigma. METHODS The study was preregistered via Open Science Framework. Four hundred and forty-seven adults read an informational passage that described food addiction, eating addiction, or calorie balance explanations for obesity or a control passage about memory. Participants then completed external and internalized weight stigma measures. RESULTS Participants in the food addiction condition reported higher internalized weight stigma compared with those in the control condition. Obesity framing did not significantly affect external weight stigma compared with the control. CONCLUSIONS These findings suggest that food addiction explanations for obesity may elicit greater internalized weight stigma than non-obesity-related messages. Addiction-based and traditional obesity explanations do not appear to influence external weight stigma. Illuminating the effects of obesity framing on stigma will help researchers communicate discoveries in ways that mitigate stigma.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Jenna R. Cummings
- Jenna R. Cummings is now at the Social and Behavioral Sciences Branch, Division of Intramural Population Health Research, of the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development
| | - Ashley N. Gearhardt
- Jenna R. Cummings is now at the Social and Behavioral Sciences Branch, Division of Intramural Population Health Research, of the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development
- The University of Michigan, Department of Psychology, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
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Montemarano V, Cassin SE. The effect of a food addiction explanatory model of eating behaviours on weight-based stigma: An experimental investigation. Eat Behav 2021; 41:101507. [PMID: 33862467 DOI: 10.1016/j.eatbeh.2021.101507] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2020] [Revised: 03/24/2021] [Accepted: 04/05/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Weight stigmatization and discrimination are pervasive issues that have numerous adverse consequences for those with excess weight. It has been proposed that some individuals may be addicted to hyperpalatable processed foods, resulting in weight promoting eating behaviours. The current study replicated and extended a study examining the effect of a food addiction explanation for eating behaviours on weight-based stigma and weight-controllability beliefs. Undergraduate students (N = 757) were randomly assigned to one of four conditions where they read a newspaper article accompanied by a photo of a woman 1) who was either of a higher body mass index (BMI) or a lower BMI, and 2) that attributed her eating behaviours to either food addiction or poor dietary and lifestyle choices. Stigma towards the woman and individuals with a higher BMI in general were assessed. Results indicated that the woman with a higher BMI elicited greater weight stigma. Attributing weight to food addiction increased perceptions of psychopathology towards the woman, whereas attributing weight to poor dietary and lifestyle choices elicited judgment towards the woman. Neither explanation about eating behaviours elicited stigma towards individuals with a higher BMI in general. Findings suggest that a food addiction explanation alone may not be sufficient to reduce weight stigma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vanessa Montemarano
- Department of Psychology, Ryerson University, 350 Victoria Street, Toronto M5B 2K3, Ontario, Canada.
| | - Stephanie E Cassin
- Department of Psychology, Ryerson University, 350 Victoria Street, Toronto M5B 2K3, Ontario, Canada
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O’Brien KS, Puhl RM, Latner JD, Lynott D, Reid JD, Vakhitova Z, Hunter JA, Scarf D, Jeanes R, Bouguettaya A, Carter A. The Effect of a Food Addiction Explanation Model for Weight Control and Obesity on Weight Stigma. Nutrients 2020; 12:nu12020294. [PMID: 31978983 PMCID: PMC7071011 DOI: 10.3390/nu12020294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2019] [Revised: 12/15/2019] [Accepted: 01/07/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
There is increasing scientific and public support for the notion that some foods may be addictive, and that poor weight control and obesity may, for some people, stem from having a food addiction. However, it remains unclear how a food addiction model (FAM) explanation for obesity and weight control will affect weight stigma. In two experiments (N = 530 and N = 690), we tested the effect of a food addiction explanation for obesity and weight control on weight stigma. In Experiment 1, participants who received a FAM explanation for weight control and obesity reported lower weight stigma scores (e.g., less dislike of ‘fat people’, and lower personal willpower blame) than those receiving an explanation emphasizing diet and exercise (F(4,525) = 7.675, p = 0.006; and F(4,525) = 5.393, p = 0.021, respectively). In Experiment 2, there was a significant group difference for the dislike of ‘fat people’ stigma measure (F(5,684) = 5.157, p = 0.006), but not for personal willpower weight stigma (F(5,684) = 0.217, p = 0.81). Participants receiving the diet and exercise explanation had greater dislike of ‘fat people’ than those in the FAM explanation and control group (p values < 0.05), with no difference between the FAM and control groups (p > 0.05). The FAM explanation for weight control and obesity did not increase weight stigma and resulted in lower stigma than the diet and exercise explanation that attributes obesity to personal control. The results highlight the importance of health messaging about the causes of obesity and the need for communications that do not exacerbate weight stigma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kerry S. O’Brien
- School of Social Sciences, Faculty of Arts, Monash University, Melbourne 3800, Australia
- Correspondence:
| | - Rebecca M. Puhl
- Department of Human Development and Family Sciences, Rudd Center for Food Policy & Obesity, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA
| | - Janet D. Latner
- Department of Psychology, College of Social Sciences, University of Hawaii, Manoa, HI 96822, USA
| | - Dermot Lynott
- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Science and Technology University of Lancaster, Lancaster LA1 4YW, UK
| | - Jessica D. Reid
- School of Social Sciences, Faculty of Arts, Monash University, Melbourne 3800, Australia
| | - Zarina Vakhitova
- School of Social Sciences, Faculty of Arts, Monash University, Melbourne 3800, Australia
| | - John A. Hunter
- Division of Sciences, Department of Psychology, University of Otago, Dunedin 9016, New Zealand
| | - Damian Scarf
- Division of Sciences, Department of Psychology, University of Otago, Dunedin 9016, New Zealand
| | - Ruth Jeanes
- Curriculum & Pedagogy, Faculty of Education, Monash University, Melbourne 3800, Australia
| | - Ayoub Bouguettaya
- School of Social Sciences, Faculty of Arts, Monash University, Melbourne 3800, Australia
| | - Adrian Carter
- School of Psychology, Faculty of Medicine, Nursing, and Health Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne 3800, Australia
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Food Addiction: Implications for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Overeating. Nutrients 2019; 11:nu11092086. [PMID: 31487791 PMCID: PMC6770567 DOI: 10.3390/nu11092086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2019] [Revised: 08/14/2019] [Accepted: 08/21/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
With the obesity epidemic being largely attributed to overeating, much research has been aimed at understanding the psychological causes of overeating and using this knowledge to develop targeted interventions. Here, we review this literature under a model of food addiction and present evidence according to the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM-5) criteria for substance use disorders. We review several innovative treatments related to a food addiction model ranging from cognitive intervention tasks to neuromodulation techniques. We conclude that there is evidence to suggest that, for some individuals, food can induce addictive-type behaviours similar to those seen with other addictive substances. However, with several DSM-5 criteria having limited application to overeating, the term ‘food addiction’ is likely to apply only in a minority of cases. Nevertheless, research investigating the underlying psychological causes of overeating within the context of food addiction has led to some novel and potentially effective interventions. Understanding the similarities and differences between the addictive characteristics of food and illicit substances should prove fruitful in further developing these interventions.
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Obesity Stigma: Is the 'Food Addiction' Label Feeding the Problem? Nutrients 2019; 11:nu11092100. [PMID: 31487868 PMCID: PMC6770691 DOI: 10.3390/nu11092100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2019] [Revised: 08/27/2019] [Accepted: 08/30/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Obesity is often attributed to an addiction to high-calorie foods. However, the effect of "food addiction" explanations on weight-related stigma remains unclear. In two online studies, participants (n = 439, n = 523, respectively, recruited from separate samples) read a vignette about a target female who was described as 'very overweight'. Participants were randomly allocated to one of three conditions which differed in the information provided in the vignette: (1) in the "medical condition", the target had been diagnosed with food addiction by her doctor; (2) in the "self-diagnosed condition", the target believed herself to be a food addict; (3) in the control condition, there was no reference to food addiction. Participants then completed questionnaires measuring target-specific stigma (i.e., stigma towards the female described in the vignette), general stigma towards obesity (both studies), addiction-like eating behavior and causal beliefs about addiction (Study 2 only). In Study 1, participants in the medical and self-diagnosed food addiction conditions demonstrated greater target-specific stigma relative to the control condition. In Study 2, participants in the medical condition had greater target-specific stigma than the control condition but only those with low levels of addiction-like eating behavior. There was no effect of condition on general weight-based stigma in either study. These findings suggest that the food addiction label may increase stigmatizing attitudes towards a person with obesity, particularly within individuals with low levels of addiction-like eating behavior.
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Cassin SE, Buchman DZ, Leung SE, Kantarovich K, Hawa A, Carter A, Sockalingam S. Ethical, Stigma, and Policy Implications of Food Addiction: A Scoping Review. Nutrients 2019; 11:E710. [PMID: 30934743 PMCID: PMC6521112 DOI: 10.3390/nu11040710] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2019] [Revised: 03/08/2019] [Accepted: 03/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The concept of food addiction has generated much controversy. In comparison to research examining the construct of food addiction and its validity, relatively little research has examined the broader implications of food addiction. The purpose of the current scoping review was to examine the potential ethical, stigma, and health policy implications of food addiction. Major themes were identified in the literature, and extensive overlap was identified between several of the themes. Ethics sub-themes related primarily to individual responsibility and included: (i) personal control, will power, and choice; and (ii) blame and weight bias. Stigma sub-themes included: (i) the impact on self-stigma and stigma from others, (ii) the differential impact of substance use disorder versus behavioral addiction on stigma, and (iii) the additive stigma of addiction plus obesity and/or eating disorder. Policy implications were broadly derived from comparisons to the tobacco industry and focused on addictive foods as opposed to food addiction. This scoping review underscored the need for increased awareness of food addiction and the role of the food industry, empirical research to identify specific hyperpalatable food substances, and policy interventions that are not simply extrapolated from tobacco.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie E Cassin
- Department of Psychology, Ryerson University, 350 Victoria St., Toronto, ON M5B 2K3, Canada.
- Centre for Mental Health, University Health Network, Network - Toronto General Hospital, 200 Elizabeth Street, 8th Floor, Toronto, ON M5G 2C4, Canada.
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Toronto, 250 College Street, Toronto, ON M5T 1R8, Canada.
| | - Daniel Z Buchman
- University of Toronto Joint Centre of Bioethics, 155 College Street, Suite 754, Toronto, ON M5T 1P8, Canada.
- Bioethics Program and Krembil Brain Institute, Toronto Western Hospital, University Health Network, 399 Bathurst Street, Toronto, ON M5T 1P8, Canada.
- Dalla Lana School of Public Health, University of Toronto, 155 College Street, 6th Floor, Toronto, ON M5T 1R8, Canada.
| | - Samantha E Leung
- Centre for Mental Health, University Health Network, Network - Toronto General Hospital, 200 Elizabeth Street, 8th Floor, Toronto, ON M5G 2C4, Canada.
- Bariatric Surgery Program, University Health Network - Toronto Western Hospital, 399 Bathurst Street, East Wing ⁻ 4th Floor, Toronto, ON M5T 2S8, Canada.
| | - Karin Kantarovich
- Centre for Mental Health, University Health Network, Network - Toronto General Hospital, 200 Elizabeth Street, 8th Floor, Toronto, ON M5G 2C4, Canada.
- Bariatric Surgery Program, University Health Network - Toronto Western Hospital, 399 Bathurst Street, East Wing ⁻ 4th Floor, Toronto, ON M5T 2S8, Canada.
| | - Aceel Hawa
- Department of Education, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, 33 Russell Street, Toronto, ON M5S 2S1, Canada.
| | - Adrian Carter
- School of Psychological Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC 3181, Australia.
- UQ Centre for Clinical Research, University of Queensland, Herston, QLD 4029, Australia.
| | - Sanjeev Sockalingam
- Centre for Mental Health, University Health Network, Network - Toronto General Hospital, 200 Elizabeth Street, 8th Floor, Toronto, ON M5G 2C4, Canada.
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Toronto, 250 College Street, Toronto, ON M5T 1R8, Canada.
- Bariatric Surgery Program, University Health Network - Toronto Western Hospital, 399 Bathurst Street, East Wing ⁻ 4th Floor, Toronto, ON M5T 2S8, Canada.
- Department of Education, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, 33 Russell Street, Toronto, ON M5S 2S1, Canada.
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Adopting an addiction perspective on eating disorders and obesity may have practical implications for diagnostic classification, prevention, and treatment of these disorders. The present article critically examines these implications derived from the food addiction concept. RECENT FINDINGS Introducing food addiction as a new disorder in diagnostic classification system seems redundant as most individuals with an addiction-like eating behavior are already covered by established eating disorder diagnoses. Food addiction may be a useful metaphor in the treatment of binge eating, but would be inappropriate for the majority of obese individuals. Implying an addiction to certain foods is not necessary when applying certain approaches inspired by the addiction field for prevention and treatment of obesity. The usefulness of abstinence models in the treatment of eating disorders and obesity needs to be rigorously tested in future studies. Some practical implications derived from the food addiction concept provide promising avenues for future research (e.g., using an addiction framework in the treatment of binge eating or applying abstinence models). For others, however, the necessity of implying an addiction to some foods needs to be scrutinized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrian Meule
- Department of Psychology, University of Salzburg, Hellbrunner Straße 34, 5020, Salzburg, Austria.
- Center for Cognitive Neuroscience, University of Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria.
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