In Their Own Words: How Black Teens Define Trauma

Police Violence Exposure and Traumatic Stress Among Youth: A Systematic Review

Youth exposure to violence increases the risk of poor mental and physical health outcomes lasting into adulthood. Traumatic stress is an outcome of particular concern as the physiological stress response impacts the developing brain. Recently, youth exposure to police violence has been conceptualized as an adverse childhood experience that may impact traumatic stress. To examine this possibility, we conducted a systematic review, drawing upon five databases to gather the existing quantitative and qualitative peer-reviewed research on exposure to police violence and traumatic stress in youth. Searches yielded 27 relevant articles utilizing various study designs: thirteen quantitative, thirteen qualitative, and one mixed method. Twenty-six of the 27 studies found evidence of a relationship between police violence exposure and traumatic stress in youth. Police violence was associated with youth traumatic stress across three types of exposures: direct, vicarious, and anticipated. Studies also explored differential impacts by race and gender. The review revealed current gaps in the literature, such as a lack of data on select sociodemographic groups (e.g., rural youth, LGBTQ+ youth) and potential protective factors (e.g., resilience and school connectedness). In line with the findings, we put forth a research agenda as well as policy and practice recommendations to improve police interactions with youth and mental health services for youth who have been exposed to police violence. Recommendations include improving systematic data collection to track all types of police violence exposure, creating spaces for positive police interactions with youth, and training mental health practitioners to support youth exposed to police violence.

Introduction to the Special Section: Developmental Perspectives on Trauma Exposure and Posttraumatic Stress

This article provides an introduction and overview of the current special section devoted to developmental perspectives on trauma exposure and posttraumatic stress reactions. Although there have been many revisions to the posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) diagnosis in the four decades that have ensued since its inclusion in our diagnostic systems, and many decades of empirical and clinical work investigating the differential effects of traumatic stress on children and adolescents, a truly developmental perspective is still lacking in the diagnosis. In a call to address this gap, this article outlines principles of developmental psychopathology as applied to the phenomenology of trauma and points to potential developmental transformations in the expression of posttraumatic stress across developmental epochs. The introduction then goes on to describe the valuable contributions to the literature represented by the six teams of contributing authors to this present special section, in which they discuss stability and change in posttraumatic symptom expression across development, the current state of validation research on the proposed diagnosis of Developmental Trauma Disorder, complex symptom arrays in children who have been complexly traumatized, distinctions between Complex PTSD and emerging personality pathology, developmental perspectives on prolonged grief, and developmental considerations for understanding the intersection between trauma and moral injury. It is hoped that this collection of articles will serve to stimulate new research and inform effective interventions for young persons affected by traumatic stress.

Combining Family Systems Approaches to Address BIPOC Families' Racial Trauma Amidst the Global Pandemic

The ACE study (Felitti et al., 1998) led to the recognition of the prevalence and impact of trauma. However, since the ACE study sample was mostly white and middle class, the Philadelphia task force implemented their own study to account for trauma of a more diverse sample. A result of the study was a list of evidence-based treatments to be utilized with BIPOC populations. Of the evidence-based treatments was, ecosystemic structural family therapy (ESFT). A similar effective approach is the family resilience framework. When combined, the approaches can be effective with BIPOC families during the global pandemic and racial trauma, something not typically at the forefront of family counseling goals. In this article, I explain the four steps family counselors should follow when combining the approaches to better approach and treat racial trauma while also partaking in effective advocacy to enhance family resilience of BIPOC families. A case study is provided for family counselors to understand how to effectively utilize this combined approach.

Police Exposures and the Health and Well-being of Black Youth in the US: A Systematic Review

IMPORTANCE

Black youth in the US experience disproportionate contact with police even when accounting for criminal or delinquent behavior, which some experts say is fueled by racism and discrimination. While the literature supports the link between racism and adverse health outcomes, less is known about the impact of policing on the well-being of Black youth.

OBJECTIVE

To systematically review the literature describing the association between police exposure and health outcomes for Black youth 26 years and younger.

EVIDENCE REVIEW

A search of PubMed, Embase, Criminal Justice Abstracts, PsycInfo, and Web of Science was conducted. Eligible studies included original peer-reviewed research published from 1980 to December 2020, with a participant population of Black youth, a focus on police exposure, and health as the outcome. Additional articles were identified by hand-searching reference lists of included studies. Data extraction was performed, followed by critical appraisal of all included studies using a convergent segregated approach in which quantitative and qualitative studies were synthesized separately followed by an overarching synthesis across methods.

FINDINGS

A total of 16 quantitative studies including 19 493 participants were included in the review and demonstrated an association between police exposure and adverse mental health, sexual risk behaviors, and substance use. A total of 13 qualitative studies including 461 participants were included in the review, which corroborated and contextualized the quantitative evidence and provided additional health outcomes, such as fear for life or hopelessness.

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

Evidence shows that police exposures are associated with adverse health outcomes for Black youth. Clinicians, scientists, public health practitioners, and policy makers can partner with local governments to enact reforms that mitigate the health impact of policing on youth.

Repeated, Ongoing, and Systemic Incidents of Racism and their Harmful Mental Health Effects:: Addressing Trauma in the Lives of African Americans

This article will examine the correlation between racial incidents faced by African Americans and the psychological impact these incidents have on members of African American communities, specifically focusing on the correlation between aggressive and frequent law enforcement contact/interaction and the traumatic impacts faced by African Americans as a result of said contacts and interactions. It will also attempt to contextualize the meaning of racial trauma and its ever-present reality for African Americans. Special attention will be paid to African American youth and young adults and the ongoing traumas faced by this group as they navigate through facets of American society, both within and without their communities. A historical analysis will bolster the theory that historical events can and do create trauma (peripheral) for African Americans. The article will then discuss racial trauma as the result of frequent and ever-present forms of discrimination, including how interactions with law enforcement can exacerbate mental health issues related to trauma. Finally, recommendations will be made to reduce and prevent trauma associated with law enforcement contact and interaction.