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Achaa-Amankwaa P, Kushnereva E, Miksch H, Stumme J, Heim S, Ebersbach M. Multilingualism is associated with small task-specific advantages in cognitive performance of older adults. Sci Rep 2023; 13:16912. [PMID: 37805638 PMCID: PMC10560281 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-43961-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2023] [Accepted: 09/30/2023] [Indexed: 10/09/2023] Open
Abstract
The protective effects of multiple language knowledge on the maintenance of cognitive functions in older adults have been discussed controversially, among others, because of methodological inconsistencies between studies. In a sample of N = 528 German monolinguals and multilinguals (speaking two or more languages) older than 60 years, this study examined (1) whether speaking multiple languages is positively related to performance on tasks of interference suppression, working memory, concept shifting, and phonemic and semantic fluency, and (2) whether language proficiency and age of second language acquisition (AoA) are associated with cognitive performance of multilinguals. Controlling for education and daily activity, we found small cognitive benefits of speaking multiple languages on interference suppression, working memory, and phonemic fluency, but not on concept shifting and semantic fluency. Furthermore, no substantive correlations were found between language proficiency or AoA and cognitive performance. In conclusion, multilingualism appears to have small incremental effects on cognitive performance beyond education and daily activity in older age that are task-specific and widely independent of proficiency and AoA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Priscilla Achaa-Amankwaa
- Institute of Psychology, University of Kassel, Holländische Strasse 36-38, 34127, Kassel, Germany.
| | - Ekaterina Kushnereva
- Institute of Psychology, University of Kassel, Holländische Strasse 36-38, 34127, Kassel, Germany
| | - Hanna Miksch
- Institute of Psychology, University of Kassel, Holländische Strasse 36-38, 34127, Kassel, Germany
| | - Johanna Stumme
- Institute of Anatomy I, Medical Faculty & University Hospital Düsseldorf, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany
- Institute of Neuroscience and Medicine (INM-1), Research Centre Jülich, Jülich, Germany
| | - Stefan Heim
- Institute of Neuroscience and Medicine (INM-1), Research Centre Jülich, Jülich, Germany
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Medical Faculty, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
| | - Mirjam Ebersbach
- Institute of Psychology, University of Kassel, Holländische Strasse 36-38, 34127, Kassel, Germany
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Peitz K, Stumme J, Jockwitz C, Bittner N, Caspers S, Heim S. The influence of bilingualism on gray matter volume in the course of aging: a longitudinal study. Front Aging Neurosci 2023; 15:1193283. [PMID: 37547741 PMCID: PMC10400456 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2023.1193283] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2023] [Accepted: 06/29/2023] [Indexed: 08/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Bilingualism is associated with higher gray matter volume (GMV) as a form of brain reserve in brain regions such as the inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) and the inferior parietal lobule (IPL). A recent cross-sectional study reported the age-related GMV decline in the left IFG and IPL to be steeper for bilinguals than for monolinguals. The present study aimed at supporting this finding for the first time with longitudinal data. Methods In the current study, 200 participants aged 19 to 79 years (87 monolinguals, 113 sequential bilinguals, mostly native German speakers with variable second language background) were included. Trajectories of GMV decline in the bilateral IFG and IPL were analyzed in mono- and bilinguals over two time points (mean time interval: 3.6 years). For four regions of interest (left/right IFG and left/right IPL), mixed Analyses of Covariance were conducted to assess (i) GMV changes over time, (ii) GMV differences for language groups (monolinguals/bilinguals), and (iii) the interaction between time point and language group. Corresponding analyses were conducted for the two factors of GMV, surface area (SA) and cortical thickness (CT). Results There was higher GMV in bilinguals compared to monolinguals in the IPL, but not IFG. While the left and right IFG and the right IPL displayed a similar GMV change in mono- and bilinguals, GMV decline within the left IPL was significantly steeper in bilinguals. There was greater SA in bilinguals in the bilateral IPL and a steeper CT decline in bilinguals within in the left IPL. Conclusion The cross-sectional observations of a steeper GMV decline in bilinguals could be confirmed for the left IPL. Additionally, the higher GMV in bilinguals in the bilateral IPL may indicate that bilingualism contributes to brain reserve especially in posterior brain regions. SA appeared to contribute to bilinguals' higher GMV in the bilateral IPL, while CT seemed to account for the steeper structural decline in bilinguals in the left IPL. The present findings demonstrate the importance of time as an additional factor when assessing the neuroprotective effects of bilingualism on structural features of the human brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katharina Peitz
- Institute of Neuroscience and Medicine (INM-1), Research Center Jülich, Jülich, Germany
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Medical Faculty, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
- Institute for Anatomy I, Medical Faculty and University Hospital Düsseldorf, Heinrich Heine University, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Johanna Stumme
- Institute of Neuroscience and Medicine (INM-1), Research Center Jülich, Jülich, Germany
- Institute for Anatomy I, Medical Faculty and University Hospital Düsseldorf, Heinrich Heine University, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Christiane Jockwitz
- Institute of Neuroscience and Medicine (INM-1), Research Center Jülich, Jülich, Germany
- Institute for Anatomy I, Medical Faculty and University Hospital Düsseldorf, Heinrich Heine University, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Nora Bittner
- Institute of Neuroscience and Medicine (INM-1), Research Center Jülich, Jülich, Germany
- Institute for Anatomy I, Medical Faculty and University Hospital Düsseldorf, Heinrich Heine University, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Svenja Caspers
- Institute of Neuroscience and Medicine (INM-1), Research Center Jülich, Jülich, Germany
- Institute for Anatomy I, Medical Faculty and University Hospital Düsseldorf, Heinrich Heine University, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Stefan Heim
- Institute of Neuroscience and Medicine (INM-1), Research Center Jülich, Jülich, Germany
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Medical Faculty, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
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Stasenko A, Kaestner E, Arienzo D, Schadler A, Reyes A, Shih JJ, Helm JL, Połczyńska M, McDonald CR. Bilingualism and Structural Network Organization in Temporal Lobe Epilepsy: Resilience in Neurologic Disease. Neurology 2023; 100:e1887-e1899. [PMID: 36854619 PMCID: PMC10159767 DOI: 10.1212/wnl.0000000000207087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2022] [Accepted: 01/06/2023] [Indexed: 03/02/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES There is growing evidence that bilingualism can induce neuroplasticity and modulate neural efficiency, resulting in greater resistance to neurologic disease. However, whether bilingualism is beneficial to neural health in the presence of epilepsy is unknown. We tested whether bilingual individuals with temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) have improved whole-brain structural white matter network organization. METHODS Healthy controls and individuals with TLE recruited from 2 specialized epilepsy centers completed diffusion-weighted MRI and neuropsychological testing as part of an observational cohort study. Whole-brain connectomes were generated via diffusion tractography and analyzed using graph theory. Global analyses compared network integration (path length) and specialization (transitivity) in TLE vs controls and in a 2 (left vs right TLE) × 2 (bilingual vs monolingual) model. Local analyses compared mean local efficiency of predefined frontal-executive and language (i.e., perisylvian) subnetworks. Exploratory correlations examined associations between network organization and neuropsychological performance. RESULTS A total of 29 bilingual and 88 monolingual individuals with TLE matched on several demographic and clinical variables and 81 age-matched healthy controls were included. Globally, a significant interaction between language status and side of seizure onset revealed higher network organization in bilinguals compared with monolinguals but only in left TLE (LTLE). Locally, bilinguals with LTLE showed higher efficiency in frontal-executive but not in perisylvian networks compared with LTLE monolinguals. Improved whole-brain network organization was associated with better executive function performance in bilingual but not monolingual LTLE. DISCUSSION Higher white matter network organization in bilingual individuals with LTLE suggests a neuromodulatory effect of bilingualism on whole-brain connectivity in epilepsy, providing evidence for neural reserve. This may reflect attenuation of or compensation for epilepsy-related dysfunction of the left hemisphere, potentially driven by increased efficiency of frontal-executive networks that mediate dual-language control. This highlights a potential role of bilingualism as a protective factor in epilepsy, motivating further research across neurologic disorders to define mechanisms and develop interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alena Stasenko
- From the Center for Multimodal Imaging and Genetics (A. Stasenko, E.K., D.A., A. Schadler, A.R., C.R.M.), Department of Psychiatry (A. Stasenko, E.K., D.A., A. Schadler, C.R.M.), Department of Radiation Medicine & Applied Sciences (A.R., C.R.M.), and Department of Neurosciences (J.J.S.), University of California, San Diego; Department of Psychology (J.L.H.), San Diego State University, CA; and Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences (M.P.), David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, University of California, Los Angeles
| | - Erik Kaestner
- From the Center for Multimodal Imaging and Genetics (A. Stasenko, E.K., D.A., A. Schadler, A.R., C.R.M.), Department of Psychiatry (A. Stasenko, E.K., D.A., A. Schadler, C.R.M.), Department of Radiation Medicine & Applied Sciences (A.R., C.R.M.), and Department of Neurosciences (J.J.S.), University of California, San Diego; Department of Psychology (J.L.H.), San Diego State University, CA; and Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences (M.P.), David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, University of California, Los Angeles
| | - Donatello Arienzo
- From the Center for Multimodal Imaging and Genetics (A. Stasenko, E.K., D.A., A. Schadler, A.R., C.R.M.), Department of Psychiatry (A. Stasenko, E.K., D.A., A. Schadler, C.R.M.), Department of Radiation Medicine & Applied Sciences (A.R., C.R.M.), and Department of Neurosciences (J.J.S.), University of California, San Diego; Department of Psychology (J.L.H.), San Diego State University, CA; and Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences (M.P.), David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, University of California, Los Angeles
| | - Adam Schadler
- From the Center for Multimodal Imaging and Genetics (A. Stasenko, E.K., D.A., A. Schadler, A.R., C.R.M.), Department of Psychiatry (A. Stasenko, E.K., D.A., A. Schadler, C.R.M.), Department of Radiation Medicine & Applied Sciences (A.R., C.R.M.), and Department of Neurosciences (J.J.S.), University of California, San Diego; Department of Psychology (J.L.H.), San Diego State University, CA; and Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences (M.P.), David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, University of California, Los Angeles
| | - Anny Reyes
- From the Center for Multimodal Imaging and Genetics (A. Stasenko, E.K., D.A., A. Schadler, A.R., C.R.M.), Department of Psychiatry (A. Stasenko, E.K., D.A., A. Schadler, C.R.M.), Department of Radiation Medicine & Applied Sciences (A.R., C.R.M.), and Department of Neurosciences (J.J.S.), University of California, San Diego; Department of Psychology (J.L.H.), San Diego State University, CA; and Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences (M.P.), David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, University of California, Los Angeles
| | - Jerry J Shih
- From the Center for Multimodal Imaging and Genetics (A. Stasenko, E.K., D.A., A. Schadler, A.R., C.R.M.), Department of Psychiatry (A. Stasenko, E.K., D.A., A. Schadler, C.R.M.), Department of Radiation Medicine & Applied Sciences (A.R., C.R.M.), and Department of Neurosciences (J.J.S.), University of California, San Diego; Department of Psychology (J.L.H.), San Diego State University, CA; and Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences (M.P.), David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, University of California, Los Angeles
| | - Jonathan L Helm
- From the Center for Multimodal Imaging and Genetics (A. Stasenko, E.K., D.A., A. Schadler, A.R., C.R.M.), Department of Psychiatry (A. Stasenko, E.K., D.A., A. Schadler, C.R.M.), Department of Radiation Medicine & Applied Sciences (A.R., C.R.M.), and Department of Neurosciences (J.J.S.), University of California, San Diego; Department of Psychology (J.L.H.), San Diego State University, CA; and Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences (M.P.), David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, University of California, Los Angeles
| | - Monika Połczyńska
- From the Center for Multimodal Imaging and Genetics (A. Stasenko, E.K., D.A., A. Schadler, A.R., C.R.M.), Department of Psychiatry (A. Stasenko, E.K., D.A., A. Schadler, C.R.M.), Department of Radiation Medicine & Applied Sciences (A.R., C.R.M.), and Department of Neurosciences (J.J.S.), University of California, San Diego; Department of Psychology (J.L.H.), San Diego State University, CA; and Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences (M.P.), David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, University of California, Los Angeles
| | - Carrie R McDonald
- From the Center for Multimodal Imaging and Genetics (A. Stasenko, E.K., D.A., A. Schadler, A.R., C.R.M.), Department of Psychiatry (A. Stasenko, E.K., D.A., A. Schadler, C.R.M.), Department of Radiation Medicine & Applied Sciences (A.R., C.R.M.), and Department of Neurosciences (J.J.S.), University of California, San Diego; Department of Psychology (J.L.H.), San Diego State University, CA; and Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences (M.P.), David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, University of California, Los Angeles.
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Calvo N, Anderson JAE, Berkes M, Freedman M, Craik FIM, Bialystok E. Gray Matter Volume as Evidence for Cognitive Reserve in Bilinguals With Mild Cognitive Impairment. Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord 2023; 37:7-12. [PMID: 36821175 PMCID: PMC10128621 DOI: 10.1097/wad.0000000000000549] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2022] [Accepted: 01/11/2023] [Indexed: 02/24/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Compared with monolinguals, bilinguals have a later onset of mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and Alzheimer disease symptoms and greater neuropathology at similar cognitive and clinical levels. The present study follows a previous report showing the faster conversion from MCI to Alzheimer disease for bilingual patients than comparable monolinguals, as predicted by a cognitive reserve (CR). PURPOSE Identify whether the increased CR found for bilinguals in the previous study was accompanied by greater gray matter (GM) atrophy than was present for the monolinguals. METHODS A novel deep-learning technique based on convolutional neural networks was used to enhance clinical scans into 1 mm MPRAGEs and analyze the GM volume at the time of MCI diagnosis in the earlier study. PATIENTS Twenty-four bilingual and 24 monolingual patients were diagnosed with MCI at a hospital memory clinic. RESULTS Bilingual patients had more GM loss than monolingual patients in areas related to language processing, attention, decision-making, motor function, and episodic memory retrieval. Bilingualism and age were the strongest predictors of atrophy after other variables such as immigration and education were included in a multivariate model. DISCUSSION CR from bilingualism is evident in the initial stages of neurodegeneration after MCI has been diagnosed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Morris Freedman
- Rotman Research Institute at Baycrest, Toronto
- Department of Medicine, Division of Neurology, Baycrest, Mt. Sinai Hospital, and University of Toronto
| | | | - Ellen Bialystok
- York University, Department of Psychology
- Rotman Research Institute at Baycrest, Toronto
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Carthery-Goulart MT, Privitera AJ, Weekes BS. Does Language Distance Modulate the Contribution of Bilingualism to Cognitive Reserve in Seniors? A Systematic Review. Am J Alzheimers Dis Other Demen 2023; 38:15333175231167223. [PMID: 37186676 PMCID: PMC10623985 DOI: 10.1177/15333175231167223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
We report a systematic review and exploratory meta-regression investigating the hypothesis that the effects of bilingualism on cognitive reserve are modulated by the distance between the pair of languages a bilingual uses. An inclusive multiple database search was performed in order to identify all relevant published research conducted in bilingual seniors. A combination of qualitative and quantitative synthesis methods were used in order to investigate our research questions. Results suggest that healthy bilingual seniors speaking more distant language pairs show improved monitoring performance on cognitive tasks. Evidence regarding a modulatory influence of language distance (LD) on the age of dementia diagnosis was inconclusive due to the small number of published studies meeting our inclusion criteria. We recommend more detailed reporting of individual differences in bilingual experience to assess the impact of LD and other variables on typical cognitive aging and the development of dementia. Linguistic differences in samples should also be considered as a constraint on bilingual advantages in future studies. Preregistration: PROSPERO CRD42021238705; OSF DOI 10.17605/OSF.IO/VPRBU.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Teresa Carthery-Goulart
- Faculty of Education, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
- Center for Mathematics, Computing and Cognition, Federal University of ABC, Sao Paulo, Brazil
- Behavioral and Cognitive Neurology Unit, Department of Neurology, Hospital Das Clínicas, University of São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Adam John Privitera
- Faculty of Education, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
- Centre for Research and Development in Learning, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
| | - Brendan Stuart Weekes
- Faculty of Education, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
- School of Psychology, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIA, Australia
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6
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Mendez MF. Can Speaking More Than One Language Help Prevent Alzheimer's Disease? J Alzheimers Dis 2023; 95:363-377. [PMID: 37545240 DOI: 10.3233/jad-230285] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/08/2023]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is an age-related neurocognitive disorder that is epidemic in the elderly population. Currently, there are limited pharmacological interventions, and this has heightened the urgency to identify potential preventable or modifiable risk factors that promote resilience to the neuropathological effects of AD. The regular use of two or more languages is one such factor that may increases cognitive reserve through the long-standing executive control involved in managing multiple languages in the brain. There is also evidence that bilingualism is associated with increased brain reserve or maintenance, particularly in frontal-executive structures and networks. This review examines the current, sometimes conflicting literature on bi/multilingualism and AD. These studies have confounding variations in the assessment of age of second language onset, language proficiency, language usage, and whether determining incidence of AD or age of symptom onset. Despite these limitations, most publications support the presence of increased frontal-executive reserve that compensates for the development of AD neuropathology and, thereby, delays the emergence of clinical symptoms of dementia by about 4-5 years. Although regularly speaking more than one language does not protect against AD neuropathology, the delay in its clinical expression has a potentially significant impact on the lifelong morbidity from this age-related disease. Learning other languages may be an important modifiable factor for delaying the clinical expression of AD in later life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mario F Mendez
- Departments of Neurology and Psychiatry & Biobehavioral Sciences, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, and Neurology Service, Neurobehavior Unit, U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, Los Angeles, CA, USA
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7
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Chen S, Lin Y, Zuo S, Wang Z, Liang J, Jiang Z, Xu Y, Wang P, Jing X, Lin L. Cognitive Advantage of Bilingualism Over Monolingualism in Older Adults: A Meta-Analysis. Curr Alzheimer Res 2022; 19:555-567. [PMID: 36125836 DOI: 10.2174/1567205019666220920092234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2022] [Revised: 08/18/2022] [Accepted: 08/22/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES This study aimed to explore whether bilingual older adults had a cognitive advantage over their monolingual counterparts, and validate the influence of cognition-related (participants' cognitive condition, the cognitive domain assessed), and bilingualism-related factors (second language proficiency, frequency of use, acquisition time, and immigration status of participants)on the cognitive advantage of bilingualism. METHODS Through a systematic search of nine databases (Web of Science, PubMed, Elsevier Science Direct, Cochrane Library, Embase, PsycINFO, CNKI, VIP and Wanfang) from the inception to April 2021, observational studies with bilingual and monolingual older adults as participants and cognitive function scores as outcome measures were included. Two reviewers independently completed the selection and methodological quality assessment of studies using the JBI cross-sectional study quality evaluation tool and used a pre-designed table for data extraction and sorting. RESULTS Fourteen studies with 51 tasks were included, involving 3737 participants (bilingual group: 1695, monolingual group: 2042). The overall results of the meta-analysis showed that bilingualism had a small cognitive advantage over monolingualism in older adults [SMD=0.23, 95%CI (0.07, 0.38), P=0.004]. In addition, the subgroup analyses indicated that factors such as participants' cognitive condition, the cognitive domain assessed, second language proficiency, acquisition time, and immigration status of participants impacted the cognitive advantage of bilingualism in older adults. CONCLUSION Bilingualism had a mild cognitive advantage over monolingualism in older adults, which was more prominent in older adults with mild cognitive impairment than in cognitively healthy ones, more evident in global cognitive function and inhibitory control than in other individual cognitive domains, and might be influenced by the proficiency and acquisition time of second language as well as the immigration status of older adults.
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Affiliation(s)
- Si Chen
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou 215006, China.,School of Nursing, Medical College of Soochow University, Suzhou 215006, China
| | - Yuying Lin
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou 215006, China.,School of Nursing, Medical College of Soochow University, Suzhou 215006, China
| | - Shufang Zuo
- School of Nursing, Medical College of Soochow University, Suzhou 215006, China
| | - Ziyu Wang
- School of Nursing, Medical College of Soochow University, Suzhou 215006, China
| | - Jinghong Liang
- Department of Maternal and Child Health, School of Public Health, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510080, China
| | - Zheng Jiang
- School of Nursing, Medical College of Soochow University, Suzhou 215006, China
| | - Yue Xu
- School of Nursing, Medical College of Soochow University, Suzhou 215006, China
| | - Peiyu Wang
- School of Nursing, Medical College of Soochow University, Suzhou 215006, China
| | - Xiuchen Jing
- School of Nursing, Medical College of Soochow University, Suzhou 215006, China
| | - Lu Lin
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou 215006, China.,School of Nursing, Medical College of Soochow University, Suzhou 215006, China
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Voits T, DeLuca V, Abutalebi J. The Nuance of Bilingualism as a Reserve Contributor: Conveying Research to the Broader Neuroscience Community. Front Psychol 2022; 13:909266. [PMID: 35814120 PMCID: PMC9263506 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.909266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2022] [Accepted: 06/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The neurological notion of "reserve" arises from an individually observable dissociation between brain health and cognitive status. According to the cognitive reserve hypothesis, high-reserve individuals experience functional compensation for neural atrophy and, thus, are able to maintain relatively stable cognitive functioning with no or smaller-than-expected impairment. Several lifestyle factors such as regular physical exercise, adequate and balanced nutrition, and educational attainment have been widely reported to contribute to reserve and, thus, lead to more successful trajectories of cognitive aging (CA). In recent years, it has become clear that bilingualism is also a potential reserve contributor. Yet, there is little communication between the neuroscience of bilingualism research community and researchers working in the field of CA more generally, despite compelling reasons for it. In fact, bilingualism tends to be overlooked as a contributory factor in the CA literature, or reduced to a dichotomous trait, despite it being a complex experience. Herein, we discuss issues that are preventing recognition of bilingualism as a reserve contributor across all literatures, highlight the benefits of including language experiences as a factor of interest across research disciplines, and suggest a roadmap to better integrate bilingualism and aging moving forward. We close with calls toward a model of aging that examines the contributions across lifestyle factors, including that of bilingual experience.
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Affiliation(s)
- Toms Voits
- PoLaR Lab, AcqVA Aurora Centre, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Vincent DeLuca
- PoLaR Lab, AcqVA Aurora Centre, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Jubin Abutalebi
- PoLaR Lab, AcqVA Aurora Centre, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
- Centre for Neurolinguistics and Psycholinguistics (CNPL), Vita-Salute San Raffaele University, Milan, Italy
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Gallo F, DeLuca V, Prystauka Y, Voits T, Rothman J, Abutalebi J. Bilingualism and Aging: Implications for (Delaying) Neurocognitive Decline. Front Hum Neurosci 2022; 16:819105. [PMID: 35185498 PMCID: PMC8847162 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2022.819105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2021] [Accepted: 01/11/2022] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
As a result of advances in healthcare, the worldwide average life expectancy is steadily increasing. However, this positive trend has societal and individual costs, not least because greater life expectancy is linked to higher incidence of age-related diseases, such as dementia. Over the past few decades, research has isolated various protective "healthy lifestyle" factors argued to contribute positively to cognitive aging, e.g., healthy diet, physical exercise and occupational attainment. The present article critically reviews neuroscientific evidence for another such factor, i.e., speaking multiple languages. Moreover, with multiple societal stakeholders in mind, we contextualize and stress the importance of the research program that seeks to uncover and understand potential connections between bilingual language experience and cognitive aging trajectories, inclusive of the socio-economic impact it can have. If on the right track, this is an important line of research because bilingualism has the potential to cross-over socio-economic divides to a degree other healthy lifestyle factors currently do not and likely cannot.
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Affiliation(s)
- Federico Gallo
- Centre for Cognition and Decision Making, Institute for Cognitive Neuroscience, National Research University Higher School of Economics, Moscow, Russia
- Centre for Neurolinguistics and Psycholinguistics (CNPL), Vita-Salute San Raffaele University, Milan, Italy
| | - Vincent DeLuca
- PoLaR Lab, AcqVA Aurora Centre, UiT-The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Yanina Prystauka
- PoLaR Lab, AcqVA Aurora Centre, UiT-The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Toms Voits
- PoLaR Lab, AcqVA Aurora Centre, UiT-The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Jason Rothman
- PoLaR Lab, AcqVA Aurora Centre, UiT-The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
- Centro de Investigación Nebrija en Cognición (CINC), University Nebrija, Madrid, Spain
| | - Jubin Abutalebi
- Centre for Neurolinguistics and Psycholinguistics (CNPL), Vita-Salute San Raffaele University, Milan, Italy
- PoLaR Lab, AcqVA Aurora Centre, UiT-The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
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How does bilingualism modify cognitive function? Attention to the mechanism. Psychon Bull Rev 2022; 29:1246-1269. [PMID: 35091993 DOI: 10.3758/s13423-022-02057-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/03/2022] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
It has been claimed that bilingual experience leads to an enhancement of cognitive control across the lifespan, a claim that has been investigated by comparing monolingual and bilingual groups performing standard executive function (EF) tasks. The results of these studies have been inconsistent, however, leading to controversy over the essential assumptions underlying the research program, namely, whether bilingualism produces cognitive change. We argue that the source of the inconsistency is not in the evidence but rather in the framework that has typically been used to motivate the research and interpret the results. We examine the componential view of EF with its central role for inhibition and argue that it provides a poor fit to both bilingual experience and the results of these studies. As an alternative, we propose a more holistic account based on attentional control that overrides the processes in the componential model of EF and applies to a wider range of tasks. The key element in our account is that behavioral differences between monolingual and bilingual individuals reflect differences in the efficiency and deployment of attentional control between the two language groups. In support of this point we show how attentional control provides a more satisfactory account for a range of findings that cannot reasonably be attributed to inhibition. We also suggest that group differences will emerge only when the attentional demands of a task exceed the control abilities of one of the groups, regardless of the EF components involved. We then review literature from across the lifespan to evaluate the extent to which this account is consistent with existing evidence, and conclude with some suggestions on how the field may be advanced by new lines of empirical enquiry.
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11
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Berkes M, Bialystok E. Bilingualism as a Contributor to Cognitive Reserve: What it Can do and What it Cannot do. Am J Alzheimers Dis Other Demen 2022; 37:15333175221091417. [PMID: 35470704 PMCID: PMC10581104 DOI: 10.1177/15333175221091417] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
In the absence of effective pharmacological interventions for the prevention of dementia, attention has turned to lifestyle factors that contribute to cognitive reserve. Although cognitive reserve cannot prevent the occurrence of disease, the trajectory is different for high reserve and low reserve patients, giving more time for independent living to high reserve individuals. We argue that lifelong bilingual experience meets the criteria for an experience that confers cognitive reserve, although neural reserve, a related concept, is more difficult to validate. Bilingual patients show symptoms at a later stage of disease and decline more rapidly than comparable monolingual patients. These patterns are considered in terms of evidence from behavioural, imaging and epidemiological studies. Finally, the role of bilingualism in protecting against symptoms of some forms of dementia are discussed in the context of other protective factors and the limits of this reserve approach in dealing with the consequences of dementia.
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12
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Mendis SB, Raymont V, Tabet N. Bilingualism: A Global Public Health Strategy for Healthy Cognitive Aging. Front Neurol 2021; 12:628368. [PMID: 33935937 PMCID: PMC8081826 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2021.628368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2020] [Accepted: 03/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Dementia is a global public health priority which cost global societies $818 billion in 2015 and is disproportionately impacting low and middle-income countries (LMICs). With limited availability of disease modifying drugs to treat Alzheimer's disease (AD), researchers have increasingly focused on preventative strategies which may promote healthy cognitive aging and mitigate the risk of cognitive impairment in aging. Lifelong bilingualism has been presented as both a highly debated and promising cognitive reserve factor which has been associated with better cognitive outcomes in aging. A recent metanalysis has suggested that bilingual individuals present on average 4.05 years later with the clinical features of AD than monolinguals. Bilinguals are also diagnosed with AD ~2.0 years later than monolingual counterparts. In this perspective piece we critically evaluate the findings of this metanalysis and consider the specific implications of these findings to LMICs. Furthermore, we appraise the major epidemiological studies conducted globally on bilingualism and the onset of dementia. We consider how both impactful and robust studies of bilingualism and cognition in older age may be conducted in LMICs. Given the limited expenditure and resources available in LMICs and minimal successes of clinical trials of disease modifying drugs we propose that bilingualism should be positioned as an important and specific public health strategy for maintaining healthy cognitive aging in LMICs. Finally, we reflect upon the scope of implementing bilingualism within the education systems of LMICs and the promotion of bilingualism as a healthy cognitive aging initiative within government policy.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Vanessa Raymont
- Oxford Brain Health Clinical Trials Unit, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Naji Tabet
- Center for Dementia Studies, Brighton and Sussex Medical School, Brighton, United Kingdom
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13
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Heredia RR, Blackburn AM, Vega LA. Moderation-Mediation Effects in Bilingualism and Cognitive Reserve. Front Psychol 2020; 11:572555. [PMID: 33101142 PMCID: PMC7554512 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.572555] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2020] [Accepted: 09/09/2020] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
We first provide a critical review of the existing findings on bilingualism as a contributor to cognitive reserve from moderator-mediator warranting cause-effect research conclusions. We next address the question of direct or indirect effects between bilingualism and neurocognitive protective factors influencing the associated age-related mental deficits. The existing findings support bilingualism as a predictor and as a moderator. Third, we propose cognitive reserve models of bilingualism describing analytical approaches that allow testing of these models and hypotheses related to path strength and causal relationships between predictors, moderators, and mediators. Lastly and most importantly, we suggest using large datasets available via open repositories. This can aid in the testing of theoretical models, clarifying the roles of moderators and mediators, and assessing the research viability of multi-causal paths that can influence cognitive reserve. Creating collaborative datasets to test these models would greatly advance our field and identify critical variables in the study of the bilingual aging brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberto R Heredia
- Department of Psychology and Communication, Texas A&M International University, Laredo, TX, United States
| | - Angélique M Blackburn
- Department of Psychology and Communication, Texas A&M International University, Laredo, TX, United States
| | - Luis A Vega
- Department of Psychology, California State University-Bakersfield, Bakersfield, CA, United States
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14
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Beyond Alzheimer's disease: Can bilingualism be a more generalized protective factor in neurodegeneration? Neuropsychologia 2020; 147:107593. [PMID: 32882240 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2020.107593] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2020] [Revised: 07/10/2020] [Accepted: 08/26/2020] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Bilingualism has been argued to have an impact on cognition and brain structure. Effects have been reported across the lifespan: from healthy children to ageing adults, including clinical (ageing) populations. It has been argued that active bilingualism may significantly contribute to the delaying of the expression of Alzheimer's disease symptoms. If bilingualism plays an ameliorative role against the expression of neurodegeneration in dementia, it is possible that it could have similar effects for other neurodegenerative disorders, including Multiple Sclerosis, Parkinson's and Huntington's Diseases. To date, however, direct relevant evidence remains limited, not least because the necessary scientific motivations for investigating this with greater depth have not yet been fully articulated. Herein, we provide a roadmap that reviews the relevant literatures, highlighting potential links across neurodegenerative disorders and bilingualism more generally.
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