The complex and bidirectional interaction between sex hormones and exercise performance in team sports with emphasis on soccer

Sex Differences in Physiological Responses to a National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I Soccer Season

ABSTRACT

McFadden, BA, Walker, AJ, Cintineo, HP, Bozzini, BN, Sanders, DJ, Chandler, AJ, and Arent, SM. Sex differences in physiological responses to a national collegiate athletic association division I soccer season. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2024-Identifying physiological changes that occur in response to workload demands can help to elucidate athlete management and recovery strategies. The purpose of this study was to compare the physical and physiological demands between men and women throughout the course of a collegiate soccer season. Men (N = 23) and women (N = 26) soccer players participated in blood draws before preseason (T1) and every 4 weeks thereafter (T2-T4). Workload was determined at all practices and games via heart rate and global positioning satellite monitoring systems. Repeated measures multivariate analysis of variance and linear mixed models were used to assess workload and biomarker responses throughout the season (p < 0.05). Both teams experienced the highest workloads during the first 4 weeks of the season (p < 0.05), which was followed by several biomarker perturbations. Sex-by-Time interactions were observed for total cortisol, growth hormone, insulin-like growth factor-1, thyroxine, thyroid-stimulating hormone, vitamin D, and omega 3 fatty acid index (p < 0.05). Additional Sex effects were observed for free and total testosterone, estrogen, prolactin, sex-hormone binding globulin, creatine kinase, and iron levels (p < 0.05). Women soccer players experienced further Time effects for free cortisol, iron, ferritin, and percent transferrin saturation (p < 0.05). Male soccer players experienced additional Time effects for total testosterone, estrogen, creatine kinase, interleukin-6, triiodothyronine, and ferritin (p < 0.05). Despite similar patterns of change in workloads, differential fluctuations in physiological markers were observed between the sexes. Understanding sex differences in response to comparable workloads may enhance exercise prescriptions for better athlete management plans. Additional strategies to increase iron may be warranted in female athletes.

Effects of exercise on sex steroid hormones (estrogen, progesterone, testosterone) in eumenorrheic females: A systematic to review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

The sex steroid hormones fluctuate during the menstrual cycle, which affects the strength and postural stability of females and leads to injuries and risk of falls. These hormones may be modulated by exercise to impact the overall health of females.

OBJECTIVE

To determine the effects of exercise on sex steroid hormones in eumenorrheic females.

METHODS

This review was performed following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses(PRISMA) guidelines in Lahore, Pakistan. The full-length articles were searched using these databases/search engines (PubMed, Web of Science and Google Scholar, Sci-Hub). Randomized controlled trials along with single group experimental studies were also included. All types of exercises were compared with no exercise in the control group. The Cochrane Risk of Bias assessment tool assessed and screened the articles. The data were then analyzed. The primary outcomes were the levels of estrogen, progesterone and testosterone.

RESULTS

Eleven studies were included (5 randomized controlled trials and 6 quasi-experimental studies). The effects of exercise on free estradiol concentration and serum progesterone level were not significant [p = 0.37 (SMD = 0.33, 95% CI = 0.14 to 0.74, I2 = 0%) and p = 0.84 (S.D= -0.65, C.I= -6.92 to 5.62, I2 = 94%)] respectively, whereas, the effects on testosterone levels were significant [p value < 0.00001 (M.D = 0.89, 95% C.I= -2.16 to 3.95, I2 = 94%)].

CONCLUSION

A blinded randomized controlled trial should be conducted in which a structured approach should be followed by women along with warm-ups, cool down and rest intervals.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

The systematic review was registered prospectively on PROSPERO with registration number CRD42023473767.

The Effect of Environmental Disasters on Endocrine Status, Hematology Parameters, Body Composition, and Physical Performance in Young Soccer Players: A Case Study of the Aral Sea Region

The Aral Sea region (Uzbekistan) is infamous because of the ecological disaster characterized by the disappearance of the Aral Sea due to excessive uncontrolled water intake for agriculture needs. A new desert occurrence, soil and climate aridization led to pesticide and toxic metals environment pollution. The impact of environmental conditions in some areas of Uzbekistan on the health of soccer players is not as noticeable as, for example, the effectiveness of training, so it is not widely discussed in scientific papers. The aim of the present study was to study the features of endocrine status, hematology parameters (e.g., red blood cells (RBC) and hemoglobin (Hb)), and their influence on body composition and physical fitness performance in local young soccer players of the Aral Sea region as the territory of ecological disaster. The study involved 60 male soccer players aged from 18 to 22 years. Participants were divided into two groups: the experimental group (EG), which consisted of 30 soccer players living on the territory of the Aral ecological disaster region, and the control group (CG), which included 30 soccer players, natives of the ecologically favorable region of Uzbekistan. All volunteers had anthropometric measurements, concentrations of insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1), total testosterone (TT), estradiol (E2), cortisol (C), RBC, and Hb count. Moreover, Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test Level 1 (YYIRT1) and professional skills tests such as dribbling shuttle test (DSt) and goal accuracy test (GAt) were assessed. When comparing the CG group to the EG group, it was observed that the EG group exhibited statistically significantly reduced levels of TT and E2 (p < 0.05). No significant statistical difference was observed between the two groups in terms of IGF-1 and C (p > 0.05). Regarding hematological parameters, Hb, Ht, and mean corpuscular volume (MCV) were found to be significantly lower in the EG compared with the CG (p < 0.05). Moreover, the distance covered in the YYIR1 test was found to be significantly lower in soccer players within the EG compared with the CG (p < 0.05). Additionally, it was determined that there was no significant difference between the groups in terms of DSt and GAt values (p > 0.05). Lastly, significant differences were observed between the EG and CG in terms of anthropometric characteristics (diameters, skinfold, and somatotype profile) (p < 0.05). The present study showed that the changes in evaluated characteristics might result from the complex influence of endocrine-disrupting chemicals, the content of which is high in the environment of the Aral Sea region. The results obtained may help monitor the health of athletes living in an environmentally unfriendly environment.

EXERCISE-INDUCED HORMONAL RESPONSES TO HMB ADMINISTRATION: A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW AND META-ANALYSIS

ABSTRACT Introduction: The β-hydroxy β-methyl butyrate (HMB) is an amino acid leucine metabolite with several ergogenic benefits. It is known that it can benefit testosterone and cortisol concentration in athletes. However, no systematic review and meta-analysis has focused on the effects of HMB supplementation on testosterone and cortisol in trained athletes. Objectives: The meta-analysis evaluates the effect of HMB supplementation on testosterone and cortisol in trained athletes and verifies conflicting results between studies. Methods: A systemic review was performed in Scopus, Medline, and Google scholar databases of articles published until August 2021. The Cochrane Collaboration tool was used to assess the risk of bias and assess the quality of the studies. Random effects model, weighted mean difference (WMD), and 95% confidence interval (CI) were used to estimate the overall effect. Results: Although the meta-analysis showed that HMB consumption does not alter cortisol and testosterone concentration, subgroup analysis based on exercise type exhibited a significant decrease in cortisol concentration in resistance training exercises (P<0.05) and a significant increase in testosterone concentration in combined aerobic and anaerobic sports (P<0.05). Conclusion: The results indicate that HMB supplementation in athletes can reduce cortisol concentration in endurance exercise and increase testosterone concentration in combined aerobic and anaerobic exercise. Evidence Level II; Therapeutic Studies – Investigating the results.

Testosterone and cortisol responses to ß-hydroxy ß-methylbutryate consumption and exercise: A meta-analysis

Background

β-hydroxy β-methylbutryate (HMB) is a metabolite of leucine amino acid and it has several ergogenic benefits. Previous studies also showed that it may affect beneficially the testosterone and cortisol concentration in athletes. Due to the contradiction results between studies, we aimed to conduct this meta-analysis to assess the HMB supplementation effect on testosterone and cortisol in trained athletes.

Methods

Scopus, Medline, and Google scholar were systematically searched up to August 2021. The Cochrane Collaboration tool for evaluating the risk of bias was applied for assessing the studies' quality. Random-effects model, weighted mean difference (WMD), and 95% confidence interval (CI) were used for estimating the overall effect. Between-study heterogeneity was evaluated applying the chi-squared and I2 statistic.

Results

Seven articles were included in the meta-analysis. Although the meta-analysis generally showed that HMB consumption did not have any effect on the cortisol and testosterone concentration (p > .05), subgroup analysis based on the exercise type showed a significant decrease in the cortisol concentration in resistance training exercises (WMD = -3.30; 95% CI: -5.50, -1.10; p = .003) and a significant increase in the testosterone concentration in aerobic and anaerobic combined sports (WMD = 1.56; 95% CI: 0.07, 3.05; p = .040).

Conclusion

The results indicate that HMB supplementation in athletes can reduce the concentration of cortisol in resistance exercises and increase the concentration of testosterone in aerobic and anaerobic combined exercises. Nevertheless, more studies are required to confirm these results.

Biomarkers Correlate With Body Composition and Performance Changes Throughout the Season in Women's Division I Collegiate Soccer Players

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of a competitive soccer season on biomarkers and performance metrics in order to determine the correlation between changes in biomarkers, body composition, and performance outcomes. Twenty-one Division 1 female collegiate soccer players were monitored throughout the 16-week season. Player workload was measured using heart rate and Global Position Satellite systems at all practices and games. Performance testing, including vertical jump, VO_2max, and 3-repetition maximum testing for bench press, squat and deadlift, occurred prior to pre-season and immediately post-season. Blood draws occurred prior to preseason and every 4-weeks thereafter, following a game. Body composition was assessed prior to the start of season (week 0) and weeks 6, 10, 14, and 17 (post-season). Delta area under the curve was calculated for biomarkers and body composition variables to account for seasonal changes adjusted for baseline. Pearson-product moment correlations were used to assess relationships with significance set at p < 0.05. Trends were considered p ≤ 0.10. No significant time main effects were seen for anabolic biomarkers (p > 0.05). Significant time effects were seen for catabolic biomarkers throughout the season (p = 0.001). No changes in body weight, VO_2max, vertical jump, and deadlift occurred. Squat and bench press improved (p = 0.01 and p = 0.02, respectively) with a decline in percent body fat (p = 0.03) and a trend for increased fat free mass (p = 0.09). Additionally, total cortisol (TCORT) negatively correlated with fat free mass (r = −0.48; p = 0.03) and positively correlated with VO_2max (r = 0.47; p = 0.04). A trend was shown for a positive correlation between both TCORT and free cortisol (FCORT) and percent body fat (r = 0.39; r = 0.40; p = 0.08, respectively). IGF-1 and growth hormone positively correlated to deadlift (r = 0.57; P = 0.02 and r = 0.59; p = 0.03), whereas creatine kinase showed a trend for a positive correlation with deadlift (r = 0.49; p = 0.06). IL-6 negatively correlated with bench press (r = −0.53; p = 0.03). These findings support a relationship between biomarkers, performance outcomes, and body composition. Biomarker monitoring may be useful to detect individual player's physiological response to an athletic season and may help provide insights in efforts to optimize performance outcomes.