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ISCEV extended protocol for the dark-adapted red flash ERG. Doc Ophthalmol 2018; 136:191-197. [PMID: 29934801 PMCID: PMC6061112 DOI: 10.1007/s10633-018-9644-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2018] [Accepted: 05/08/2018] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The International Society for Clinical Electrophysiology of Vision (ISCEV) standard for full-field electroretinography (ERG) describes a minimum procedure, but encourages more extensive testing. This ISCEV extended protocol describes an extension to the ERG standard, namely the dark-adapted (DA) red flash ERG. The DA red flash ERG can be incorporated conveniently within the ISCEV standard ERG protocol after a minimum of 20-min DA and recorded after the DA 0.01 ERG to a flash strength of 0.3 phot cd s m−2, eliciting a waveform with two positive peaks in healthy individuals. The first positive component is the cone-mediated x-wave with a peak at 30–50 ms; the second is a rod-mediated b-wave with a peak time of approximately 100 ms. Shorter DA times may be desirable to shorten the recording time or to alter the prominence of the early cone-mediated x-wave relative to the rod-mediated b-wave. The DA red flash ERG is used to aid the diagnosis of achromatopsia (rod monochromacy), cone dystrophy and other forms of cone system dysfunction, including “Bradyopsia” (RGS9/R9AP-retinopathy), when the DA red flash ERG x-wave is preserved in the absence of ISCEV standard LA ERGs. The DA red flash ERG can also help determine the origin of residual DA ERGs in cases of severe rod dysfunction, for example in disorders such as vitamin A deficiency, fundus albipunctatus (RDH5-retinopathy), Oguchi disease (SAG- or GRK1-retinopathy) and some rod-cone dystrophies. To shorter DA periods, the x-wave may be elicited without the following rod b-wave, shown to be helpful in abbreviated protocols for children.
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Hamilton R, Graham K. Dark-adapted red flash ERGs in healthy adults. Doc Ophthalmol 2018; 137:1-8. [PMID: 29858967 PMCID: PMC6096876 DOI: 10.1007/s10633-018-9642-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2018] [Accepted: 05/22/2018] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Purpose The x-wave of the dark-adapted (DA) ERG to a red flash reflects DA cone function. This exploratory study of healthy adults aimed to investigate changes in the DA red ERG with flash strength and during dark adaptation to optimise visualisation and therefore quantification of the x-wave. Methods The effect of altering red flash strength was investigated in four subjects by recording ERGs after 20 min dark adaptation to red flashes (0.2–2.0 cd s m−2) using skin electrodes and natural pupils. The effect of dark adaptation duration was investigated in 16 subjects during 20 min in the dark, by recording DA 1.5 red ERGs at 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 15 and 20 min. Results For a dark adaption period of 20 min, the x-wave was more clearly visualised to weaker (< 0.6 cd s m−2) red flash strengths: to stronger flashes it became obscured by the b-wave. For red flashes of 1.5 cd s m−2, the x-wave was most prominent in ERGs recorded after 1–5 min of dark adaptation: with longer dark adaptation, it was subsumed into the b-wave’s rising edge. Conclusions This small study suggests that x-wave visibility in healthy subjects after 20 min dark adaptation is improved by using flashes weaker than around 0.6 cd s m−2; for flash strengths of 1.5 cd s m−2, x-wave visibility is enhanced by recording after only around 5 min of dark adaptation. No evidence was found that interim red flash ERGs affect the dark-adapted state of the normal retina.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Hamilton
- Department of Clinical Physics and Bio-Engineering, NHS Greater Glasgow and Clyde, Glasgow, UK. .,College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK.
| | - K Graham
- Department of Clinical Physics and Bio-Engineering, NHS Greater Glasgow and Clyde, Glasgow, UK.,College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
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Schmöger E. PROBLEME DER ADAPTATION WÄHREND DER ERG-REGISTRIERUNG. Acta Ophthalmol 2009. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1755-3768.1962.tb00314.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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Wachtmeister L. On the oscillatory potentials of the human electroretinogram in light and dark adaptation. IV. Effect of adaptation to short flashes of light. Time interval and intensity of conditioning flashes. A Fourier analysis. Acta Ophthalmol 2009; 51:250-69. [PMID: 4801583 DOI: 10.1111/j.1755-3768.1973.tb03802.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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KAWABATA H. Course of the potential change in the human electroretinogram during light adaptation. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1998; 50:456-61. [PMID: 14404951 DOI: 10.1364/josa.50.000456] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
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Abstract
This chapter is an overview of current knowledge on the oscillatory potentials (OPs) of the retina. The first section describes the characteristics of the OPs. The basic, adaptational, pharmacological and developmental characteristics of the OPs are different from the a- and b-waves, the major components of the electroretinogram (ERG). The OPs are most easily recorded in mesopic adaptational conditions and reflect rapid changes of adaptation. They represent photopic and scotopic processes, probably an interaction between cone and rod activity in the retina. The OPs are sensitive to disruption of inhibitory (dopamine, GABA-, and glycine-mediated) neuronal pathways and are not selectively affected by excitatory amino acids. The earlier OPs are associated with the on-components and the late OPs with the off-components in response to a brief stimulus of light. The postnatal appearance of the first oscillatory activity is preceded by the a- and b-waves. The earlier OPs appear postnatally prior to, and mature differently from, the later ones. The second section deals with present views on the origin of the OPs. These views are developed from experimental studies with the vertebrate retina including the primate retina and clinical studies. Findings favor the conclusion that the OPs reflect neuronal synaptic activity in inhibitory feedback pathways initiated by the amacrines in the inner retina. The bipolar (or the interplexiform) cells are the probable generators of the OPs. Dopaminergic neurons, probably amacrines (or interplexiform cells), are involved in the generation of the OPs. The earlier OPs are generated in neurons related to the on-pathway of the retina and the later ones to the off-channel system. Peptidergic neurons may be indirectly involved as modulators. The individual OPs seem to represent the activation of several retinal generators. The earlier OPs are more dependent on an intact rod function and the later ones on an intact cone system. Thus, the OPs are good indicators of neuronal adaptive mechanisms in the retina and are probably the only post-synaptic neuronal components that can be recorded in the ERG except when structured stimuli are used. The last section describes the usefulness of the oscillatory response as an instrument to study the postnatal development of neuronal adaptation of the retina. In this section clinical examples of of the sensitivity of the OPs for revealing early disturbance in neuronal function in different retinal diseases such as pediatric, vascular and degenerative retinopathies are also given.
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el Azazi M, Wachtmeister L. The postnatal development of the oscillatory potentials of the electroretinogram V. Relation to the double peaked a-wave. Acta Ophthalmol 1993; 71:32-8. [PMID: 8475710 DOI: 10.1111/j.1755-3768.1993.tb04956.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
The postnatal development of the double peaked a-wave and its relation to the oscillatory potentials of the rat electroretinogram was studied. The split a-wave appeared one day later than the first oscillatory activity. The appearance and maturation of the positivity between the two a-waves (a-hump) was found to be similar to that of the first oscillatory potential, and the development of the second a-wave showed similarities to that of the second oscillatory potential. Thus, we conclude that the double peaked a-wave is closely related to the appearance of the two first oscillatory potential. Secondly, the division of the a-wave in the immature animal may be caused by the intrusion of the first oscillatory potential. Thirdly, the presence of a split a-wave before spontaneous opening of the lid seems to indicate a state of comparatively progressed maturity of neuronal adaptation.
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Affiliation(s)
- M el Azazi
- Department of Ophthalmology, Karolinska Institute, Huddinge University Hospital, Sweden
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Pallas S, Schmidt W, Dodt E. Scotopic versus photopic pattern onset-offset electroretinograms. Doc Ophthalmol 1992; 81:239-52. [PMID: 1468354 DOI: 10.1007/bf00156013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
We investigated the contribution of rods and cones to the human pattern electroretinogram to onset and offset checkerboards of different spatial frequency and wavelength in a 39 degrees x 39 degrees field. Under strictly scotopic conditions, there was a negative potential at onset and a positive potential at offset, whereas under photopic conditions, there was a positive potential at onset and a negative/positive potential at offset. Thus, the waveform to pattern onset (offset) was that of the luminance electroretinogram to decreasing (increasing) luminances. For pattern onset, the sensitivity difference 486-601 nm under scotopic and photopic conditions closely followed the luminosity function of rods and cones. The amplitude of the scotopic onset response increased with check size up to 3 degrees 30' and that of the photopic onset response, up to 30'. With larger checks, the scotopic and photopic onset response markedly decreased. This indicates antagonistic center-surround organization of the receptive fields under both scotopic and photopic conditions. By contrast, the offset response monotonically increased with check size under scotopic and photopic conditions, which suggests a luminance component in the pattern electroretinogram. Consequently, the pattern electroretinogram to reversing checkerboards has to be regarded as a mixture of both pattern- (contrast) and luminance-specific components.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Pallas
- Max-Planck-Institute for Physiological and Clinical Research, W. G. Kerckhoff-Institute, Bad Nauheim, Germany
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Lachapelle P, Blain L, Quigley MG, Polomeno RC, Molotchnikoff S. The effect of diphenylhydantoin on the electroretinogram. Doc Ophthalmol 1989; 73:359-68. [PMID: 2637118 DOI: 10.1007/bf00154491] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Acute administration of diphenylhydantoin (DPH) in rabbits produces a significant increase in the amplitude of the a-wave. A marked increase in the amplitude of the b-wave is also noted but the time course is slower than that for the a-wave. While in controls the oscillatory potential (OP) recordings essentially consist of three major types, recordings taken after DPH injection consist of one major OP (OP2), which appears to be a result of the fusion of the original OP2 with another OP produced by the DPH injection. A similar blend of OPs was also seen in ERGs recorded from three human subjects on DPH therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Lachapelle
- Department of Ophthalmology, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
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Fowlkes DH, Karwoski CJ, Proenza LM. Circadian modulation of the electroretinogram (a‐ and b‐waves) in the diurnal lizardAnolis carolinensis. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1987. [DOI: 10.1080/09291018709359942] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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Abstract
The ERP contains information on the function of the outer segments of the retinal photoreceptors. The authors have established normative values of the ERP and the factors which might be of influence hereupon. ERP findings in patients suffering from various eye diseases are given. Value and limitation of ERP recording are discussed in relation to the other clinically available electrodiagnostic tests.
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Affiliation(s)
- W Müller
- Erfurt Medical Academy, Department of Ophthalmology, GDR
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Arden GB, Carter RM, Hogg CR, Powell DJ, Ernst WJ, Clover GM, Lyness AL, Quinlan MP. A modified ERG technique and the results obtained in X-linked retinitis pigmentosa. Br J Ophthalmol 1983; 67:419-30. [PMID: 6860609 PMCID: PMC1040090 DOI: 10.1136/bjo.67.7.419] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
An electroretinographic (ERG) technique is described in which the relationship between scotopic b wave amplitude and stimulus light intensity is determined. The relative amplitude of scotopic to photopic responses is assessed by means of red light and flicker. The method is applied to the detection of ERG abnormalities in heterozygotes for X-linked retinitis pigmentosa. These have been found in only a proportion of cases. The ERG results can be used to suggest the nature of the retinal abnormality.
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Jacobs GH, Tootell RB. Spectral components in the b-wave of the ground squirrel electroretinogram. Vision Res 1979; 19:1243-7. [PMID: 550585 DOI: 10.1016/0042-6989(79)90190-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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Reuter JH. The development of the electroretinogram in normal and light-deprived rabbits. Pflugers Arch 1976; 363:7-13. [PMID: 944912 DOI: 10.1007/bf00587395] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
1. The development of the ERG of the pigmented Dutch Belted rabbits is completed before the age of 5 weeks. 2. The a-wave amplitude attains the adult value by the age of 40 days. 3. The b-wave amplitude development is fastest before the age of 40 days but continues to increase afterwards probably due to increase of eye size. 4. Both a- and b-wave peak-latencies decrease with increasing age to the age of 40 days. 5. The b-wave seems to originate from two processes, one leading to a "slow b-wave" showing low threshold, long peak-latency and in adult animals no oscillatory potentials, which dominates the low stimulus intensity response. The other, a "fast b-wave" of higher threshold, shorter latency, and showing oscillatory potentials, dominates the high stimulus intensity response. 6. Light deprivation does not retard the early development of the ERG in rabbits.
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Abstract
The authors review the symptomatic and genetic aspects of the various entities of isolated retinitis pigmentosa (R.P), both in its typical form and in the forms associated with the affection of other ocular tissues. Syndromes in which R. P. is associated with the affection of other organs and systemic disorders are also cconsidered. Origin, diagnosis and the course of the disease are discussed with regard to electrophysiology, histopathology, fluorescein angiography and biochemistry. Animal research has provided new realizations about the ultrastructure and physiological mechanisms of retinal photoreceptors, and better understanding of abnormal changes. The possible pathogenesis of the human disease, based on research findings, is onsidered. Although R.P. is generally thought to be to be an "untreatable" disease, therapy may be effective in several pathological entities. Methods and results of therapy with vitamins, light deprivation and vision aids are discussed.
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Algvere P, Westbeck S. Human ERG in response to double flashes of light during the course of dark adaptation: a Fourier analysis of the oscillatory potentials. Vision Res 1972; 12:195-214. [PMID: 5033684 DOI: 10.1016/0042-6989(72)90111-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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Fatechand R. The 2 component of the vitreal -wave and its intraretinal localization in the frog retina. Vision Res 1971; 11:489-500. [PMID: 5558571 DOI: 10.1016/0042-6989(71)90072-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
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Feinsod M, Rowe H, Auerbach E. Changes in the electroretinogram in patients with optic nerve lesions. Doc Ophthalmol 1971; 29:169-200. [PMID: 5088861 DOI: 10.1007/bf02456520] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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Brunette JR. Electroretinographic study of the rod-cone break in the dark adaptation curve in man. Am J Ophthalmol 1971; 71:1104-12. [PMID: 5562518 DOI: 10.1016/0002-9394(71)90584-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
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Devi SK, Burns CA, Riley EF, Jackson HL. Visual function responses of patients receiving X- or 60Co gamma-radiation therapy in the region of head and neck. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RADIATION BIOLOGY AND RELATED STUDIES IN PHYSICS, CHEMISTRY, AND MEDICINE 1971; 19:379-92. [PMID: 5314115 DOI: 10.1080/09553007114550501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
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The spectral sensitivity of the human electroretinogram during the temporal course of dark-adaptation. Vision Res 1966. [DOI: 10.1016/0042-6989(66)90002-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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JONES AE, POLSON MC, DEVALOIS RL. Mangabey x and b Wave Electroretinogram Components: Their Dark-Adapted Luminosity Functions. Science 1964; 146:1486-7. [PMID: 14208582 DOI: 10.1126/science.146.3650.1486] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
The temporal separation of x and b components in the electroretinogram of the dark-adapted eye of the sooty mangabey, Cercocebus torquatus atys, permits, an uncomplicated calculation of luminosity functions. Flicker electroretinogram studies indicate enhancement of the photopic blue sensitivity.
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JACOBSON JH, STEPHENS G. FLICKER-ERG IN MACULAR DISEASE. PROBLEMS IN STIMULUS AND RECORDING. Doc Ophthalmol 1964; 18:492-507. [PMID: 14214293 DOI: 10.1007/bf00160601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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KAWABATA H. Changes in the Human Electroretinogram during Early Dark Adaptation*. JOURNAL OF THE OPTICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA 1963; 53:386-90. [PMID: 14031461 DOI: 10.1364/josa.53.000386] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
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KRILL AE, WIELAND A, ISER G. A Comparative Study of Two Recording Techniques for Clinical Electroretinography*. Am J Ophthalmol 1962; 54:24-34. [PMID: 14459668 DOI: 10.1016/0002-9394(62)93992-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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PONTE F. Electroretinography in solar macular injury. Acta Ophthalmol 1962; Suppl 70:238-44. [PMID: 14487805 DOI: 10.1111/j.1755-3768.1962.tb00326.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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BURIAN HM, SPIVEY BE. The Effect of Twin Flashes and of Repetitive Light Stimuli on the Human Electroretinogram*. Am J Ophthalmol 1959; 48(3), Part 2:274-86. [PMID: 13806108 DOI: 10.1016/0002-9394(59)90268-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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IMUS HA. RESEARCH IN SENSORY DISORDERS. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1958; 74:136-44. [PMID: 13617860 DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1958.tb39539.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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GOODMAN G, GUNKEL RD. Familial Electroretinographic and Adaptometric Studies in Retinitis Pigmentosa*. Am J Ophthalmol 1958; 46:142-72; discussion 172-8. [PMID: 13571366 DOI: 10.1016/0002-9394(58)90062-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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RENDAHL I. The scotopic alpha-wave of the human electroretinogram; clinical cording with the electronic flash as light stimulus. Acta Ophthalmol 1958; 36:329-44. [PMID: 13532636 DOI: 10.1111/j.1755-3768.1958.tb07716.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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STORMORKEN H. Species differences of clotting factors in ox, dog, horse, and man; thrombin and fibrinogen. ACTA PHYSIOLOGICA SCANDINAVICA 1957; 40:167-81. [PMID: 13469523 DOI: 10.1111/j.1748-1716.1957.tb01486.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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HECK J, RENDAHL I. Components of the human electroretinogram; an analysis in normal eyes and in colour blindness; preliminary report. ACTA PHYSIOLOGICA SCANDINAVICA 1957; 39:167-75. [PMID: 13444031 DOI: 10.1111/j.1748-1716.1957.tb01418.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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ALPERN M, FARIS JJ. Luminance-duration relationship in the electric response of the human retina. JOURNAL OF THE OPTICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA 1956; 46:845-50. [PMID: 13367935 DOI: 10.1364/josa.46.000845] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
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