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A century of exercise physiology: key concepts in regulation of glycogen metabolism in skeletal muscle. Eur J Appl Physiol 2022; 122:1751-1772. [PMID: 35355125 PMCID: PMC9287217 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-022-04935-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2021] [Accepted: 03/15/2022] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Glycogen is a branched, glucose polymer and the storage form of glucose in cells. Glycogen has traditionally been viewed as a key substrate for muscle ATP production during conditions of high energy demand and considered to be limiting for work capacity and force generation under defined conditions. Glycogenolysis is catalyzed by phosphorylase, while glycogenesis is catalyzed by glycogen synthase. For many years, it was believed that a primer was required for de novo glycogen synthesis and the protein considered responsible for this process was ultimately discovered and named glycogenin. However, the subsequent observation of glycogen storage in the absence of functional glycogenin raises questions about the true role of the protein. In resting muscle, phosphorylase is generally considered to be present in two forms: non-phosphorylated and inactive (phosphorylase b) and phosphorylated and constitutively active (phosphorylase a). Initially, it was believed that activation of phosphorylase during intense muscle contraction was primarily accounted for by phosphorylation of phosphorylase b (activated by increases in AMP) to a, and that glycogen synthesis during recovery from exercise occurred solely through mechanisms controlled by glucose transport and glycogen synthase. However, it now appears that these views require modifications. Moreover, the traditional roles of glycogen in muscle function have been extended in recent years and in some instances, the original concepts have undergone revision. Thus, despite the extensive amount of knowledge accrued during the past 100 years, several critical questions remain regarding the regulation of glycogen metabolism and its role in living muscle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph Larner
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia 22908, USA.
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Roch-Norlund AE, Bergström J, Castenfors H, Hultman E. MUSCLE GLYCOGEN IN PATIENTS WITH DIABETES MELLITUS. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009. [DOI: 10.1111/j.0954-6820.1970.tb02969.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Larner J. Insulin and the stimulation of glycogen synthesis. The road from glycogen structure to glycogen synthase to cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase to insulin mediators. ADVANCES IN ENZYMOLOGY AND RELATED AREAS OF MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2006; 63:173-231. [PMID: 2154910 DOI: 10.1002/9780470123096.ch3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
The enhanced phosphorylations via cAMP, Ca2+ mobilization, and diacyl glycerol formation via the activation of the respective kinases is now classical. The decreased phosphorylation via inhibition of adenylate cyclase via the alpha adrenergic receptor is also becoming understood. What the insulin studies on the control of glycogen synthesis have taught us is that the rate limiting enzyme glycogen synthase is regulated by multiple covalent phosphorylation in an elegant but complex manner. The overall pattern of dephosphorylation is influenced by effecting both phosphatase and kinase activities in a set of interrelated mechanisms. In the presence of glucose, in muscle, fat, and liver under physiological conditions G-6-P acts as a signal to stimulate the phosphatase. An additional stimulation could occur via a novel insulin phosphatase stimulatory mediator. The phosphatase is also stimulated by at least three covalent mechanisms involving altered phosphorylation state. In one there is a decreased phosphorylation of the phosphatase inhibitor 1 potentially related to decreased cAMP-dependent protein kinase activity. In the second, there is decreased phosphorylation of the deinhibitor also potentially related to decreased cAMP-dependent protein kinase phosphorylation. In the third, an increased activity of casein kinase 2 could activate the ATP-Mg dependent phosphatase by an increased phosphorylation of phosphatase inhibitor 2 (modulatory subunit). In the liver, allosteric control of the phosphatase by G-6-P and nucleotides is of great importance. Insulin also stimulates the phosphatase in long-term experiments via increased protein synthesis. It is clear that future work will be required to determine which species of the various classes of phosphatases are regulated in short-term and long-term regulation by insulin. In terms of kinases, the effects of insulin to inactivate and desensitize the cAMP-dependent protein kinase are established. The molecular mechanisms of this effect remain to be worked out. The enhanced activity of MAP and S-6 kinase would appear to be part of a cascade of reactions perhaps originating in the autophosphorylation and activation of the insulin receptor tyrosine kinase. The mechanism of the short-term activation of casein kinase 2 remains to be elucidated. A cAMP-dependent protein kinase inhibitory mediator, which also inhibits adenylate cyclase is an important element in the regulation of kinase and adenylate cyclase activity by insulin. Its physiological significance must be established in the future, in terms of its control of glycogen synthase activation by insulin. Clearly this kinase inhibitor as well as the phosphatase stimulator are potential regulators of glycogen synthase activity by insulin.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Larner
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville 22908
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Higuita JC, Alape-Girón A, Thelestam M, Katz A. A point mutation in the UDP-glucose pyrophosphorylase gene results in decreases of UDP-glucose and inactivation of glycogen synthase. Biochem J 2003; 370:995-1001. [PMID: 12460121 PMCID: PMC1223220 DOI: 10.1042/bj20021320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2002] [Revised: 11/27/2002] [Accepted: 12/02/2002] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The regulatory role of UDP-glucose in glycogen biogenesis was investigated in fibroblasts containing a point mutation in the UDP-glucose pyrophosphorylase gene and, consequently, chronically low UDP-glucose levels (Qc). Comparisons were made with cells having the intact gene and restored UDP-glucose levels (G3). Glycogen was always very low in Qc cells. [(14)C]Glucose incorporation into glycogen was decreased and unaffected by insulin in Qc cells, whereas insulin stimulated glucose incorporation by approximately 50% in G3 cells. Glycogen synthase (GS) activity measured in vitro was virtually absent and the amount of enzyme in Qc cells was decreased by about 50%. The difference in GS activity between cells persisted even when G3 cells were devoid of glycogen. Incubation of G3 cell extracts with either exogenous UDP-glucose or glycogen resulted in increases in GS activity. Incubation of Qc cell extracts with exogenous UDP-glucose had no effect on GS activity; however, incubation with glycogen fully restored enzyme activity. Incubation of G3 cell extracts with radioactive UDP-glucose resulted in substantial binding of ligand to immunoprecipitated GS, whereas no binding was detected in Qc immunoprecipitates. Incubation of Qc cell extracts with exogenous glycogen fully restored UDP-glucose binding in the immunoprecipitate. These data suggest that chronically low UDP-glucose levels in cells result in inactivation of GS, owing to loss of the ability of GS to bind UDP-glucose.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan-Carlos Higuita
- Microbiology and Tumor Biology Center, Karolinska Institutet, S-171 77 Stockholm, Sweden
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Helander I, Westerblad H, Katz A. Effects of glucose on contractile function, [Ca2+]i, and glycogen in isolated mouse skeletal muscle. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 2002; 282:C1306-12. [PMID: 11997245 DOI: 10.1152/ajpcell.00490.2001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Extensor digitorum longus muscles were stimulated to contract to fatigue and allowed to recover for 2 h in the absence or presence of 5.5 or 11 mM extracellular glucose. This was followed by a second fatigue run, which ended when the absolute force was the same as at the end of the first run. During the first fatigue run, the fluorescence ratio for indo 1 increased [reflecting an increase in myoplasmic free Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]i)] during the initial tetani, peaking at approximately 115% of the first tetanic value, followed by a continuous decrease to approximately 90% at fatigue. During the first fatigue run, myofibrillar Ca2+ sensitivity was significantly decreased. During the second run, the number of tetani was 57 +/- 6% of initial force in muscles that recovered in the absence of glucose and 110 +/- 6 and 119 +/- 2% of initial force in muscles that recovered in 5.5 and 11 mM glucose, respectively. Fluorescence ratios during the first, peak, and last tetani did not differ significantly between the first and second fatigue runs during any of the three conditions. Glycogen decreased by almost 50% during the first fatigue run and did not change further after recovery in the absence of glucose. After recovery in the presence of 5.5 and 11 mM glucose, glycogen increased 32 and 42% above the nonstimulated control value (P < 0.01). These data demonstrate that extracellular glucose delays the decrease of tetanic force and [Ca2+]i during fatiguing stimulation and that glycogen supercompensation following contraction can occur in the absence of insulin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ingrid Helander
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Karolinska Institutet, 171 77 Stockholm, Sweden
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STEIN JM, PADYKULA HA. Histochemical classification of individual skeletal muscle fibers of the rat. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1998; 110:103-23. [PMID: 13916631 DOI: 10.1002/aja.1001100203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 302] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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TWAROG JM, LARSON BL. INDUCED ENZYMATIC CHANGES IN LACTOSE SYNTHESIS AND ASSOCIATED PATHWAYS OF BOVINE MAMMARY CELL CULTURES. Exp Cell Res 1996; 34:88-99. [PMID: 14134539 DOI: 10.1016/0014-4827(64)90185-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Shashkin P, Koshkin A, Langley D, Ren JM, Westerblad H, Katz A. Effects of CGS 9343B (a putative calmodulin antagonist) on isolated skeletal muscle. Dissociation of signaling pathways for insulin-mediated activation of glycogen synthase and hexose transport. J Biol Chem 1995; 270:25613-8. [PMID: 7592735 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.270.43.25613] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
The role of calmoudulin in control of carbohydrate metabolism in the absence and presence of insulin in isolated mouse soleus muscle was investigated. The calmodulin antagonist CGS 9343B had no effect on basal glycogen synthase activity, the contents of high energy phosphates, glucose-6-P, or glycogen synthesis. However, CGS 9343B inhibited the basal rates of 2-deoxyglucose uptake and 3-O-methylglucose transport by 30% (p < 0.05) and 40% (p < 0.001), respectively. Insulin activated glycogen synthase by almost 40% (p < 0.01) and this increase was not altered in the presence of CGS 9343B. Insulin increased the muscle content of glucose-6-P (approximately equal to 2-fold), as well as glycogen synthesis (approximately equal to 8-fold), 2-deoxyglucose uptake (approximately equal to 3-fold), and 3-O-methylglucose transport (approximately equal to 2-fold), and these increases were inhibited by CGS 9343B. In additional experiments on isolated rat epitrochlearis muscle, it was found that the hypoxia-mediated activation of 3-O-methylglucose transport was also inhibited by CGS 9343B. These data demonstrate that: 1) hexose transport, both in the absence and presence of external stimuli (insulin and hypoxia), requires functional calmodulin; and 2) insulin-mediated activation of glycogen synthase does not require functional calmodulin, nor can it be accounted for by increases in glucose transport or glucose-6-P.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Shashkin
- Department of Surgical Sciences, Karolinska Hospital, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
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Villar-Palasi C. Effect of glucose phosphorylation on the activation by insulin of skeletal muscle glycogen synthase. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA 1995; 1244:203-8. [PMID: 7766660 DOI: 10.1016/0304-4165(95)00006-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
The effect of insulin injection on skeletal muscle glycogen synthase activation was studied in anesthetized, normal, fed rats. Insulin stimulated the conversion of glycogen synthase to the active I form, increased the concentration of glucose 6-phosphate, and activated glycogen synthase phosphatase. A close correlation between glucose 6-phosphate concentrations, per cent glycogen synthase in the active I form, and phosphatase activity was found. When boiled extracts of muscle from control and insulin-injected animals were added to glycogen pellets containing phosphatase 1G, the difference in phosphatase activity between muscle extracts from insulin-injected and control rats was restored, indicating that the phosphatase was activated by heat-stable factors. Deproteinized muscle extracts from control and insulin-injected rats, at concentrations equivalent to those present in muscle, were tested for the activation of glycogen synthase by purified protein phosphatases 1 and 2A. The activation with the insulin extracts was four-fold larger than with the control extracts. When the extracts from insulin-injected rats were treated with glucose 6-phosphatase, the difference in activation with the control rat extracts was canceled. It would appear that, as in other insulin sensitive tissues, in skeletal muscle the increase in glucose 6-phosphate subsequent to the activation of glucose transport by insulin contributes to the activation of glycogen synthase.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Villar-Palasi
- Department of Pharmacology, Medical School, University of Virginia, Charlottesville 22908, USA
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Villar-Palasi C. Substrate specific activation by glucose 6-phosphate of the dephosphorylation of muscle glycogen synthase. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA 1991; 1095:261-7. [PMID: 1659909 DOI: 10.1016/0167-4889(91)90109-b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
The activation of glycogen synthase by insulin is in many instances stimulated by the presence of extracellular glucose. Previous observations in cell extracts, glycogen pellets and other crude systems suggest that this stimulation may be due to an increase in glucose 6-phosphate, which activates the dephosphorylation of glycogen synthase by protein phosphatases. Using purified rabbit muscle glycogen synthase D and protein phosphatases 1 and 2A, the types responsible for the activation of muscle synthase, it was found that glucose 6-phosphate, at low, physiological concentrations, stimulated the dephosphorylation of glycogen synthase. Both types of phosphatase were stimulated to the same extent when acting on glycogen synthase. The dephosphorylation of other protein substrates of the phosphatases was either not affected or inhibited by glucose 6-phosphate. It appears that the stimulatory effect of glucose 6-phosphate at physiological concentrations is apparently specific for glycogen synthase, and most likely due to an allosteric configuration change of this enzyme which facilitates its dephosphorylation. In addition, the effects of other reported modulators of glycogen synthase dephosphorylation, AMP, ATP and Mg2+, were studied in this 'in vitro' system.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Villar-Palasi
- Department of Pharmacology, Medical School, University of Virginia, Charlottesville 22908
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Larner J, Villar-Palasí V. Commentary on 'Insulin-Mediated Effect on the Activity of UDPG-Glycogen Transglucosylase of Muscle'. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA 1989; 1000:311-3. [PMID: 2505848 DOI: 10.1016/s0006-3002(89)80025-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- J Larner
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville
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Yki-Järvinen H, Mott D, Young AA, Stone K, Bogardus C. Regulation of glycogen synthase and phosphorylase activities by glucose and insulin in human skeletal muscle. J Clin Invest 1987; 80:95-100. [PMID: 3110217 PMCID: PMC442206 DOI: 10.1172/jci113069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
We examined the insulin dose-response characteristics of human muscle glycogen synthase and phosphorylase activation. We also determined whether increasing the rate of glucose disposal by hyperglycemia at a fixed insulin concentration activates glycogen synthase. Physiological increments in plasma insulin but not glucose increased the fractional activity of glycogen synthase. The ED50: s for insulin stimulation of whole body and forearm glucose disposal were similar and unaffected by glycemia. Glycogen synthase activation was exponentially related to the insulin-mediated component of whole body and forearm glucose disposal at each glucose concentration. Neither insulin nor glucose changed glycogen phosphorylase activity. These results suggest that insulin but not the rate of glucose disposal per se regulates glycogen synthesis by a mechanism that involves dephosphorylation of glycogen synthase but not phosphorylase. This implies that the low glycogen synthase activities found in insulin-resistant states are a consequence of impaired insulin action rather than reduced glucose disposal.
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Gottschalk WK, Jarett L. Intracellular mediators of insulin action. DIABETES/METABOLISM REVIEWS 1985; 1:229-59. [PMID: 2873004 DOI: 10.1002/dmr.5610010302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
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Larner J, Cheng K, Schwartz C, Kikuchi K, Tamura S, Creacy S, Dubler R, Galasko G, Pullin C, Katz M. Insulin mediators and their control of metabolism through protein phosphorylation. RECENT PROGRESS IN HORMONE RESEARCH 1982; 38:511-56. [PMID: 6812180 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-571138-8.50017-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
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Adolfesson S. Glycogen synthesis in rat diaphragm in vivo: a biphasic effect of insulin on glycogen synthetase enzyme. ACTA PHYSIOLOGICA SCANDINAVICA 1973; 87:465-73. [PMID: 4199001 DOI: 10.1111/j.1748-1716.1973.tb05413.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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Smialek M, Sikorska M, Bicz W, Mossakowski MJ. UDPglucose:glycogen -4-glucosyltransferase (EC 2.4.1.11) and -1,4-glucan: orthophosphate glucosyltransferase (EC 2.4.1.1) activity in rat brain in experimental ischemia. Acta Neuropathol 1971; 19:242-8. [PMID: 5134160 DOI: 10.1007/bf00684601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
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Schliselfeld LH, Davis CH, Krebs EG. A comparison of phosphorylase isozymes in the rabbit. Biochemistry 1970; 9:4959-65. [PMID: 4991410 DOI: 10.1021/bi00827a020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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Huijing F, Nuttall FQ, Villar-Palasi C, Larner J. UDPglucose: alpha-I,4-glucan alpha-4-glucosyltransferase in heart regulation of the activity of the transferase in vivo and in vitro in rat. A dissociation in the action of insulin on transport and on transferase conversion. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA 1969; 177:204-12. [PMID: 4305362 DOI: 10.1016/0304-4165(69)90129-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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De Ribaupierre F. [Localization, biosynthesis and breakdown of glycogen in the cervical ganglion of the rat]. Brain Res 1968; 11:42-64. [PMID: 5722727 DOI: 10.1016/0006-8993(68)90073-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
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Pannbacker RG. Uridine diphosphoglucose biosynthesis during differentiation in the cellular slime mold. II. In vitro measurements. Biochemistry 1967; 6:1287-93. [PMID: 6068283 DOI: 10.1021/bi00857a009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
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Torres HN, Birnbaumer L, Del Carmen Garcia M, Bernard E, Belocopitow E. Glycogen metabolism in muscle homogenates. I. The effect of potassium ions on glycogen synthesis. Arch Biochem Biophys 1966; 116:59-68. [PMID: 5961856 DOI: 10.1016/0003-9861(66)90012-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
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Schliselfeld L, van Eys J, Touster O. The Purification and Properties of a Nucleotide Pyrophosphatase of Rat Liver Nuclei. J Biol Chem 1965. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(17)45248-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
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CHANDLER AM, MOORE RO. Glycogen deposition in adipose tissue: Variations in levels of glycogen-cycle enzymes during fasting and refeeding. Arch Biochem Biophys 1964; 108:183-92. [PMID: 14240566 DOI: 10.1016/0003-9861(64)90374-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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SOVIK O, WALAAS O. Insulin Stimulation of Glycogen Synthesis in the Isolated Rat Diaphragm in the Absence and in the Presence of Puromycin and Actinomycin D. Nature 1964; 202:396-7. [PMID: 14152830 DOI: 10.1038/202396a0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Borrebaek B, Walaas O. Stimulation of Glucose Uptake in the Rat Diaphragm by Hydroxy-L-proline and L-lysine. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1963. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1748-1716.1963.tb02649.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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FRIEDMAN DL, LARNER J. Interconversion of two forms of muscle UDPG −α-glucan transglucosylase by a phosphorylation-dephosphorylation reaction sequence. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1962; 64:185-6. [PMID: 13959792 DOI: 10.1016/0006-3002(62)90775-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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VILLAR-PALASI C, LARNER J. Insulin treatment and increased UDPG-glycogen transglucosylase activity in muscle. Arch Biochem Biophys 1961; 94:436-42. [PMID: 13781408 DOI: 10.1016/0003-9861(61)90071-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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BASU DK, BACHHAWAT BK. Purification of uridine diphosphoglucose-glycogen transglucosylase from sheep brain. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1961; 50:123-8. [PMID: 13687710 DOI: 10.1016/0006-3002(61)91067-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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