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Metabolism and Biological Activities of 4-Methyl-Sterols. Molecules 2019; 24:molecules24030451. [PMID: 30691248 PMCID: PMC6385002 DOI: 10.3390/molecules24030451] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2018] [Revised: 01/19/2019] [Accepted: 01/23/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
4,4-Dimethylsterols and 4-methylsterols are sterol biosynthetic intermediates (C4-SBIs) acting as precursors of cholesterol, ergosterol, and phytosterols. Their accumulation caused by genetic lesions or biochemical inhibition causes severe cellular and developmental phenotypes in all organisms. Functional evidence supports their role as meiosis activators or as signaling molecules in mammals or plants. Oxygenated C4-SBIs like 4-carboxysterols act in major biological processes like auxin signaling in plants and immune system development in mammals. It is the purpose of this article to point out important milestones and significant advances in the understanding of the biogenesis and biological activities of C4-SBIs.
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Frisso G, Gelzo M, Procopio E, Sica C, Lenza MP, Dello Russo A, Donati MA, Salvatore F, Corso G. A rare case of sterol-C4-methyl oxidase deficiency in a young Italian male: Biochemical and molecular characterization. Mol Genet Metab 2017; 121:329-335. [PMID: 28673550 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymgme.2017.06.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2017] [Revised: 06/23/2017] [Accepted: 06/26/2017] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Inborn defects of cholesterol biosynthesis are metabolic disorders presenting with multi-organ and tissue anomalies. An autosomal recessive defect involving the demethylating enzyme C4-methyl sterol (SC4MOL) has been reported in only 4 patients so far. In infancy, all patients were affected by microcephaly, bilateral congenital cataracts, growth delay, psoriasiform dermatitis, immune dysfunction, and intellectual disability. Herein, we describe a new case of SC4MOL deficiency in which a 19-year-old Italian male was affected by bilateral congenital cataracts, growth delay and learning disabilities, behavioral disorders and small stature, but not microcephaly. Our patient had abundant scalp dandruff, without other skin manifestations. Analysis of the blood sterol profile showed accumulation of C4-monomethyl and C4-dimethyl sterols suggesting a deficiency of the SC4MOL enzyme. Sequencing of the MSMO1 gene (also known as the "SC4MOL" gene) confirmed mutations in each allele (c.731A>G, p.Y244C, which is already known, and c.605G>A, p.G202E, which is a novel variant). His father carried c.731A>G mutation, whereas his mother carried c.605G>A. Thus, the combination of multiple skills and methodologies, in particular, blood sterol profiling and genetic analysis, led to the diagnosis of a new case of a very rare defect of cholesterol biosynthesis. Consequently, we suggest that these two analyses should be performed as soon as possible in all undiagnosed patients affected by bilateral cataracts and developmental delay.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giulia Frisso
- Dipartimento di Medicina Molecolare e Biotecnologie Mediche, Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II, Via Sergio Pansini 5, 80131 Napoli, Italy; CEINGE Biotecnologie Avanzate s.c.a r.l., Via Gaetano Salvatore 486, 80145 Napoli, Italy
| | - Monica Gelzo
- Dipartimento di Medicina Molecolare e Biotecnologie Mediche, Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II, Via Sergio Pansini 5, 80131 Napoli, Italy
| | - Elena Procopio
- SOC Malattie Metaboliche e Muscolari Ereditarie, Centro di Eccellenza di Neuroscienze, Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria A. Meyer, Firenze, Italy
| | - Concetta Sica
- Dipartimento di Medicina Molecolare e Biotecnologie Mediche, Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II, Via Sergio Pansini 5, 80131 Napoli, Italy
| | - Maria Pia Lenza
- Dipartimento di Medicina Molecolare e Biotecnologie Mediche, Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II, Via Sergio Pansini 5, 80131 Napoli, Italy
| | - Antonio Dello Russo
- Dipartimento di Medicina Molecolare e Biotecnologie Mediche, Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II, Via Sergio Pansini 5, 80131 Napoli, Italy
| | - Maria Alice Donati
- SOC Malattie Metaboliche e Muscolari Ereditarie, Centro di Eccellenza di Neuroscienze, Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria A. Meyer, Firenze, Italy
| | - Francesco Salvatore
- Dipartimento di Medicina Molecolare e Biotecnologie Mediche, Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II, Via Sergio Pansini 5, 80131 Napoli, Italy; CEINGE Biotecnologie Avanzate s.c.a r.l., Via Gaetano Salvatore 486, 80145 Napoli, Italy.
| | - Gaetano Corso
- Dipartimento di Medicina Clinica e Sperimentale, Università degli Studi di Foggia, Viale L. Pinto 1, 71122 Foggia, Italy.
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He M, Smith LD, Chang R, Li X, Vockley J. The role of sterol-C4-methyl oxidase in epidermal biology. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Cell Biol Lipids 2013; 1841:331-5. [PMID: 24144731 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbalip.2013.10.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2013] [Revised: 09/30/2013] [Accepted: 10/01/2013] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Deficiency of sterol C4 methyl oxidase, encoded by the SC4MOL gene, has recently been described in four patients from three different families. All of the patients presented with microcephaly, congenital cataracts, and growth delay in infancy. The first patient has suffered since the age of six years from severe, diffuse, psoriasiform dermatitis, sparing only her palms. She is now 20 years old. The second patient is a 5 year old girl who has just started to develop dry skin and hair changes. The third and fourth patients are a pair of affected siblings with a severe skin condition since infancy. Quantitative sterol analysis of plasma and skin scales from all four patients showed marked elevation of 4α-methyl- and 4, 4'-dimethylsterols, consistent with a deficiency in the first step of sterol C4 demethylation in cholesterol biosynthesis. Mutations in the SC4MOL have been identified in all of the patients. SC4MOL deficiency is the first autosomal recessive disorder identified in the sterol demethylation complex. Cellular studies with patient-derived fibroblasts have shown a higher mitotic rate than control cells in cholesterol-depleted medium, with increased de novo cholesterol biosynthesis and accumulation of methylsterols. Immunologic analyses of granulocytes and B cells from patients and obligate carriers in the patients' families indicated dysregulation of immune-related receptors. Inhibition of sterol C4 methyl oxidase in human transformed lymphoblasts induced activation of the cell cycle. Additional studies also demonstrated diminished EGFR signaling and disrupted vesicular trafficking in cells from the affected patients. These findings suggest that methylsterols play an important role in epidermal biology by their influence on cell proliferation, intracellular signaling, vesicular trafficking and immune response. SC4MOL is situated within the psoriasis susceptibility locus PSORS9, and may be a genetic risk factor for common skin conditions. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled The Important Role of Lipids in the Epidermis and their Role in the Formation and Maintenance of the Cutaneous Barrier. Guest Editors: Kenneth R. Feingold and Peter Elias.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miao He
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, PA 19104, USA.
| | - Laurie D Smith
- Department of Pediatrics, Children's Mercy Hospital, Kansas City, MO 64108, USA
| | - Richard Chang
- Division of Metabolic Disorders, CHOC Children's, Orange, CA, USA
| | - Xueli Li
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, PA 19104, USA
| | - Jerry Vockley
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Department of Human Genetics, University of Pittsburgh Graduate School of Public Health, Pittsburgh, PA USA
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He M, Kratz LE, Michel JJ, Vallejo AN, Ferris L, Kelley RI, Hoover JJ, Jukic D, Gibson KM, Wolfe LA, Ramachandran D, Zwick ME, Vockley J. Mutations in the human SC4MOL gene encoding a methyl sterol oxidase cause psoriasiform dermatitis, microcephaly, and developmental delay. J Clin Invest 2011; 121:976-84. [PMID: 21285510 DOI: 10.1172/jci42650] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2010] [Accepted: 12/08/2010] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Defects in cholesterol synthesis result in a wide variety of symptoms, from neonatal lethality to the relatively mild dysmorphic features and developmental delay found in individuals with Smith-Lemli-Opitz syndrome. We report here the identification of mutations in sterol-C4-methyl oxidase–like gene (SC4MOL) as the cause of an autosomal recessive syndrome in a human patient with psoriasiform dermatitis, arthralgias, congenital cataracts, microcephaly, and developmental delay. This gene encodes a sterol-C4-methyl oxidase (SMO), which catalyzes demethylation of C4-methylsterols in the cholesterol synthesis pathway. C4-Methylsterols are meiosis-activating sterols (MASs). They exist at high concentrations in the testis and ovary and play roles in meiosis activation. In this study, we found that an accumulation of MASs in the patient led to cell overproliferation in both skin and blood. SMO deficiency also substantially altered immunocyte phenotype and in vitro function. MASs serve as ligands for liver X receptors α and β(LXRα and LXRβ), which are important in regulating not only lipid transport in the epidermis, but also innate and adaptive immunity. Deficiency of SMO represents a biochemical defect in the cholesterol synthesis pathway, the clinical spectrum of which remains to be defined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miao He
- Department of Human Genetics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
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Fast and easy in vitro screening assay for cholesterol biosynthesis inhibitors in the post-squalene pathway. Steroids 2007; 72:633-42. [PMID: 17583759 DOI: 10.1016/j.steroids.2007.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2007] [Revised: 04/16/2007] [Accepted: 04/25/2007] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
A whole-cell assay for screening cholesterol biosynthesis inhibitors in the post-squalene pathway has been developed. HL 60 cells were incubated for 24h with test substances. The nonsaponifiable lipids were extracted by means of liquid-liquid extraction using tert-butylmethylether. The raw extracts were purified by dispersive solid phase extraction using a primary-secondary amine material (PSA) and dried using sodium sulphate. The sterols were derivatized using N-trimethylsilylimidazole. GLC/MS analysis was carried out in less than 12.5 min using fast GLC mode. The obtained sterol patterns indicated which enzyme had been inhibited. Specific sterol patterns which reflect the different enzyme inhibitions were obtained using established inhibitors of cholesterol biosynthesis like AY 9944, NB 598, clotrimazole, aminotriazole and DR 258, a Delta24-reductase inhibitor prepared in our working group. For characterizing IC(50) values we used sodium 2-(13)C-acetate and quantified the incorporation of it into cholesterol relative to control levels after the samples had been normalized to their protein content.
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Lindenthal B, Holleran AL, Aldaghlas TA, Ruan B, Schroepfer GJ, Wilson WK, Kelleher JK. Progestins block cholesterol synthesis to produce meiosis-activating sterols. FASEB J 2001; 15:775-84. [PMID: 11259396 DOI: 10.1096/fj.00-0214com] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
The resumption of meiosis is regulated by meiosis-preventing and meiosis-activating substances in testes and ovaries. Certain C29 precursors of cholesterol are present at elevated levels in gonadal tissue, but the mechanism by which these meiosis-activating sterols (MAS) accumulate has remained an unresolved question. Here we report that progestins alter cholesterol synthesis in HepG2 cells and rat testes to increase levels of major MAS (FF-MAS and T-MAS). These C29 sterols accumulated as a result of inhibition of Delta24-reduction and 4alpha-demethylation. Progesterone, pregnenolone, and 17alpha-OH-pregnenolone were potent inhibitors of Delta24-reduction in an in vitro cell assay and led to the accumulation of desmosterol, a Delta5,24 sterol precursor of cholesterol. A markedly different effect was observed for 17alpha-OH-progesterone, which caused the accumulation of sterols associated with inhibition of 4alpha-demethylation. The flux of 13C-acetate into lathosterol and cholesterol was decreased by progestins as measured by isotopomer spectral analysis, whereas newly synthesized MAS accumulated. The combined evidence that MAS concentrations can be regulated by physiological levels of progestins and their specific combination provides a plausible explanation for the elevated concentration of MAS in gonads and suggests a new role for progestins in fertility.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Lindenthal
- Department of Physiology and Experimental Medicine, The George Washington University School of Medical and Health Sciences, Washington, DC 20037, USA.
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Hashimoto F, Hayashi H. Peroxisomal cholesterol synthesis in vivo: accumulation of 4-methyl intermediate sterols after aminotriazole inhibition of cholesterol synthesis. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA 1994; 1214:11-9. [PMID: 8068723 DOI: 10.1016/0005-2760(94)90003-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
To clarify the importance and pathway of peroxisomal cholesterol synthesis in vivo, we have examined whether or not 4,4-dimethyl-5 alpha-cholest-8-en-3 beta-ol and 4 alpha-methyl-5 alpha-cholest-7-en-3 beta-ol are accumulated in hepatic peroxisomes of aminotriazole-treated rats (we have shown that these intermediate steroids accumulate in rat liver when cholesterol synthesis is inhibited by aminotriazole: Hashimoto, F. and Hayashi, H. (1991) Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1086, 115). Differential centrifugation and Nycodenz gradient centrifugation showed that these intermediate steroids were localized in peroxisomes and microsomes. Cholestyramine (3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA reductase activator) pretreatment of aminotriazole-treated rats increased the contents of the intermediate steroids in both peroxisomes and microsomes. In peroxisomes, both 4 alpha-methyl-5 alpha-cholest-7-en-3 beta-ol and 4,4-dimethyl-5 alpha-cholest-8-en-3 beta-ol were increased to about 3 times the control (aminotriazole-treated rat), and they were predominantly (about 70%) recovered in the membrane fraction after treatment with 0.05% deoxycholate or 100 mM Na2CO3. Gemfibrozil (peroxisomal proliferator) pretreatment enhanced the contents of 4 alpha-methyl-5 alpha-cholest-7-en-3 beta-ol and 4,4-dimethyl-5 alpha-cholest-8-en-3 beta-ol of peroxisomes to 4.5 times and 37 times the control, respectively. The effects of aminotriazole, cholestyramine and gemfibrozil on the intermediate contents were different between peroxisomes and microsomes. We suggest that peroxisomes in addition to microsomes participate in cholesterol synthesis in vivo, and the biosynthetic pathway includes 4 alpha-methyl-5 alpha-cholest-7-en-3 beta-ol and 4,4-dimethyl-5 alpha-cholest-8-en-3 beta-ol.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Hashimoto
- Department of Physiological Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Josai University, Saitama, Japan
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