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Effects of UCS Intensity and Duration of Exposure of Nonreinforced CS on Conditioned Electrodermal Responses: An Experimental Analysis of the Incubation Theory of Anxiety. Psychol Rep 2020. [DOI: 10.1177/00332941930733pt132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Eysenck's incubation theory of fear or anxiety was examined in a human Pavlovian conditioning experiment with skin-conductance responses as the dependent variable. The conditioned stimuli (CSs) were fear-relevant slides (snakes and spiders) and the unconditioned stimuli (UCSs) were aversive tones. Different groups of subjects were presented two tone intensities during the acquisition phase and three durations of nonreinforced CS (extinction phase) in a delay differential conditioning paradigm. Resistance to extinction of conditioned skin-conductance responses (conditioned fear responses) exhibited was largest for high intensity of tone and short presentations of the nonreinforced CS (CS + presented alone). The result tends to support Eysenck's incubation theory of anxiety.
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Pericot-Valverde I, Secades-Villa R, Gutiérrez-Maldonado J, García-Rodríguez O. Effects of systematic cue exposure through virtual reality on cigarette craving. Nicotine Tob Res 2014; 16:1470-7. [PMID: 24962558 PMCID: PMC4342674 DOI: 10.1093/ntr/ntu104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2013] [Accepted: 05/21/2014] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Cigarette cravings have been associated with less successful attempts to quit smoking and a greater likelihood of relapse after smoking cessation. Background craving refers to a relatively steady and continuous experience of craving, while cue-induced craving refers to phases of intense craving triggered by cues associated with smoking. Cue exposure treatment (CET) involves repeated exposure to stimuli associated with substance use in order to reduce craving responses. However, mixed results have been found regarding the effect of CET on both types of craving. The aim of this study was to assess the effect of systematic virtual reality cue exposure treatment (VR-CET) on background and cue-induced cravings. METHODS Participants were 48 treatment-seeking smokers. The VR-CET consisted of prolonged exposure sessions to several interactive virtual environments. The VR-CET was applied once a week over 5 weeks. An individualized hierarchy of exposure was drawn up for each patient starting from the easiest virtual environment. Background and cue-induced cravings were recorded in each session. RESULTS Cue-induced craving decreased over each session as a result of prolonged exposure. VR-CET also reduced cue-induced and background cravings across the 5 sessions, showing a cumulative effect across the exposure sessions. CONCLUSIONS Our results evidenced the utility of VR-CET in reducing both types of cigarette craving. A combination of CET through VR with psychological treatments may improve current treatments for smoking cessation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - José Gutiérrez-Maldonado
- Department of Personality, Assessment, and Psychological Treatments, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
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On the sufficiency of a Pavlovian conditioning model for coping with the complexities of neurosis. Behav Brain Sci 2011. [DOI: 10.1017/s0140525x0006180x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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Abstract
AbstractThe long-term persistence of neurotic symptoms, such as anxiety, poses difficult problems for any psychological theory. An attempt is made to revive the Watson-Mowrer conditioning theory and to avoid the many criticisms directed against it in the past. It is suggested that recent research has produced changes in learning theory that can be used to render this possible. In the first place, the doctrine of equipotentiality has been shown to be wrong, and some such concept as Seligman's “preparedness” is required, that is the notion that certain CS are biologically prepared to be more readily connected with anxiety responses than others. In the second place, the law of extinction has to be amended, and the law of incubation or enhancement added, according to which the exposure of the CS-only may, under certain specified conditions, have the effect of increasing the strength of the CR, rather than reducing it. The major conditions favouring incubation are (1) Pavlovian B conditioning, that is a type of conditioning in which the CR is a drive; (2) a strong UCS, and (3) short exposure of the CS-only.
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Clay AW, Bloomsmith MA, Marr MJ, Maple TL. Habituation and desensitization as methods for reducing fearful behavior in singly housed rhesus macaques. Am J Primatol 2009; 71:30-9. [PMID: 18850584 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.20622] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Operant conditioning using positive reinforcement techniques has been used extensively in the management of nonhuman primates in both zoological and laboratory settings. This research project was intended to test the usefulness of counter-conditioning techniques in reducing the fear-responses of singly housed male rhesus macaques living in the laboratory environment. A total of 18 male rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) were selected for this project and randomly assigned to one of three groups: a desensitization training group, a husbandry training group, or a control group. Behavioral data were collected before and after a 6 weeks training and/or habituation period during which the first two groups received a total of 125 min of positive reinforcement training (and also were assumed to undergo habituation to the environment) and the control group experienced only simple habituation to the environment. Based on a Wilcoxon Matched-Pairs Sign Test, we found that a significant proportion of animals exposed to desensitization training showed a reduction in the rate at which they engaged in cringing toward humans (exact significance=0.016, one-tailed, N-ties=6), cringing in general (exact significance=0.016, one-tailed, N-ties=6), and in stress-related behaviors (exact significance=0.016, one-tailed, N-ties=6). This was not the case for animals exposed to basic husbandry training or animals in the control group. A significant proportion of desensitization-exposed animals also showed a reduction in the duration of time spent cringing toward humans (exact significance=0.016, one-tailed, N-ties=6), but not in cringing behaviors in general or in stress-related behaviors. There were not a significant proportion of animals in either the husbandry training group or the control group that showed a decrease in duration of these behaviors. Results of this study could enhance both laboratory animal welfare and laboratory animal research, and could be a first step in developing techniques for reducing fearful behavior in rhesus monkeys in the laboratory environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea W Clay
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30329, USA.
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Baeyens F, De Houwer J. Evaluative conditioning is a qualitatively distinct form of classical conditioning: a reply to Davey (1994). Behav Res Ther 1995; 33:825-31. [PMID: 7677721 DOI: 10.1016/0005-7967(95)00021-o] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Based on a critical review of the literature, Davey (1994) [Behaviour Research and Therapy, 32, 291-299] concludes that there is no sufficient evidence to support the theoretical position that evaluative conditioning is a qualitatively different form of classical conditioning. In the present manuscript, we will try to show that Davey's conclusion is biased by: (a) an overemphasis on what he believes to be problematic procedural aspects of previous evaluative conditioning studies; and (b) a selective reading of the available evidence. Finally, an attempt is made to characterize evaluative conditioning phenomena as the output of a Referential Learning System, which can be distinguished from an Expectancy Learning System.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Baeyens
- Department of Psychology, University of Leuven, Belgium
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Abstract
This paper contains a critical review of the claim that evaluative conditioning (EC) represents a theoretically distinct form of classical conditioning. A review of the evidence suggests that: (i) while it is claimed that EC can occur without awareness, EC studies have either adopted inappropriate statistical comparisons to demonstrate this or have failed to use the control conditions necessary to indicate that what is being measured is associative conditioning; (ii) there is no theoretical reason why conditioning without awareness might be observed in any conditioning paradigm if a relatively complex covariation assessment procedure such as that adopted in EC studies is used; and (iii) there are a variety of possible explanations for the relative resistance to extinction reported with EC, some of which allude to failure to use appropriate control conditions and others which point to specific details unique to the EC extinction procedure. Until these appropriate procedural and statistical comparisons are made, it is concluded that it is premature to assume that EC represents a form of conditioning that is theoretically distinct from other types of classical conditioning.
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Affiliation(s)
- G C Davey
- Department of Social Science, City University, London, England
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Chorot P, Sandín B. Effects of UCS intensity and duration of exposure of nonreinforced CS on conditioned electrodermal responses: an experimental analysis of the incubation theory of anxiety. Psychol Rep 1993; 73:931-41. [PMID: 8302996 DOI: 10.2466/pr0.1993.73.3.931] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Eysenck's incubation theory of fear or anxiety was examined in a human Pavlovian conditioning experiment with skin-conductance responses as the dependent variable. The conditioned stimuli (CSs) were fear-relevant slides (snakes and spiders) and the unconditioned stimuli (UCSs) were aversive tones. Different groups of subjects were presented two tone intensities during the acquisition phase and three durations of nonreinforced CS (extinction phase) in a delay differential conditioning paradigm. Resistance to extinction of conditioned skin-conductance responses (conditioned fear responses) exhibited was largest for high intensity of tone and short presentations of the nonreinforced CS (CS+presented alone). The result tends to support Eysenck's incubation theory of anxiety.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Chorot
- Departmento de Psicología de la Personalidad, Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancía, Madrid, Spain
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Nonstandard model of mental health services: Marketing data-based and data-generating treatments. ADMINISTRATION AND POLICY IN MENTAL HEALTH AND MENTAL HEALTH SERVICES RESEARCH 1993. [DOI: 10.1007/bf00706389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Sandin B, Chorot P. The incubation theory of fear/anxiety: experimental investigation in a human laboratory model of Pavlovian conditioning. Behav Res Ther 1989; 27:9-18. [PMID: 2914009 DOI: 10.1016/0005-7967(89)90114-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
The aim of this work was to test Eysenck's incubation theory of fear/anxiety in human Pavlovian B conditioning of heart rate (HR) responses. The conditioned stimuli (CSs) were phobia-relevant slides (snakes and spiders) and the unconditioned stimuli (UCSs) were aversive noises. The subjects were presented with two levels of noise intensity during acquisition and three levels of nonreinforced CS presentation (CS-only) in a delay differential (CS+/CS-) conditioning paradigm (2 x 3 x 2). Consistent with the incubation theory, conditioned HR acceleratory responses were sustained (resistance to extinction) for high-noise intensity and short-presentations of CS-only subjects. During the extinction phase, HR acceleratory responses quickly extinguished in low-noise intensity groups after the first presentations of CS-only. These findings were interpreted as support for the incubation theory of phobic fear.
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Last CG, Barlow DH, O'Brien GT. Assessing cognitive aspects of anxiety. Stability over time and agreement between several methods. Behav Modif 1985; 9:72-93. [PMID: 3977815 DOI: 10.1177/01454455850091005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Four agoraphobics were assessed repeatedly with three different cognitive measures-in vivo cognitive assessment, imaginal cognitive assessment, and thought-listing procedure-to evaluate the stability and congruence of the measures. Results showed all three measures to have an unstable course across assessment sessions. In addition, several subjects evinced marked cognitive improvement across assessments, suggesting that these measures may be "reactive" in some cases. Finally, the congruence or one-to-one correspondence between two of the cognitive measures, administered in the same situation, was only modest.
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What and where is the unconditioned (or conditioned) stimulus in the conditioning model of neurosis? Behav Brain Sci 1979. [DOI: 10.1017/s0140525x00061902] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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Reflections on the conditioning model of neurosi. Behav Brain Sci 1979. [DOI: 10.1017/s0140525x00061756] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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Conditioned alpha fear responses and protection from extinction. Behav Brain Sci 1979. [DOI: 10.1017/s0140525x00061847] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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Implications of recent research in conditioning for the conditioning model of neurosis. Behav Brain Sci 1979. [DOI: 10.1017/s0140525x00061859] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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Eysenck on Watson: paying lip service to lip service. Behav Brain Sci 1979. [DOI: 10.1017/s0140525x00061720] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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Modeling neurosis: one type of learning is not enough. Behav Brain Sci 1979. [DOI: 10.1017/s0140525x00061835] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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Journey into the interior of the organism. Behav Brain Sci 1979. [DOI: 10.1017/s0140525x00061811] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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“Prepared fears” and the theory of conditioning. Behav Brain Sci 1979. [DOI: 10.1017/s0140525x00061884] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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Toward an unpdated model of neurosis. Behav Brain Sci 1979. [DOI: 10.1017/s0140525x00061793] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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Conditioning theory and neurosis. Behav Brain Sci 1979. [DOI: 10.1017/s0140525x00061665] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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The Gantt and Eysenck conditioning models for neurosis. Behav Brain Sci 1979. [DOI: 10.1017/s0140525x00061690] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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Short-latency avoidance responses. Behav Brain Sci 1979. [DOI: 10.1017/s0140525x00061896] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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Rudestam KE, Bedrosian R. An investigation of the effectiveness of desensitization and flooding with two types of phobias. Behav Res Ther 1977; 15:23-30. [PMID: 13778 DOI: 10.1016/0005-7967(77)90084-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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