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Farag H, Peters B. Engulfment Avalanches and Thermal Hysteresis for Antifreeze Proteins on Supercooled Ice. J Phys Chem B 2023. [PMID: 37294871 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcb.3c01089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Antifreeze proteins (AFPs) bind to the ice-water surface and prevent ice growth at temperatures below 0 °C through a Gibbs-Thomson effect. Each adsorbed AFP creates a metastable depression on the surface that locally resists ice growth, until ice engulfs the AFP. We recently predicted the susceptibility to engulfment as a function of AFP size, distance between AFPs, and supercooling [ J. Chem. Phys. 2023, 158, 094501]. For an ensemble of AFPs adsorbed on the ice surface, the most isolated AFPs are the most susceptible, and when an isolated AFP gets engulfed, its former neighbors become more isolated and more susceptible to engulfment. Thus, an initial engulfment event can trigger an avalanche of subsequent engulfment events, leading to a sudden surge of unrestrained ice growth. This work develops a model to predict the supercooling at which the first engulfment event will occur for an ensemble of randomly distributed AFP pinning sites on an ice surface. Specifically, we formulate an inhomogeneous survival probability that accounts for the AFP coverage, the distribution of AFP neighbor distances, the resulting ensemble of engulfment rates, the ice surface area, and the cooling rate. We use the model to predict thermal hysteresis trends and compare with experimental data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hossam Farag
- Nuclear, Plasma, and Radiological Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Baron Peters
- Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
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2
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Farag H, Peters B. Free energy barriers for anti-freeze protein engulfment in ice: Effects of supercooling, footprint size, and spatial separation. J Chem Phys 2023; 158:094501. [PMID: 36889941 DOI: 10.1063/5.0131983] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Anti-freeze proteins (AFPs) protect organisms at freezing conditions by attaching to the ice surface and arresting its growth. Each adsorbed AFP locally pins the ice surface, resulting in a metastable dimple for which the interfacial forces counteract the driving force for growth. As supercooling increases, these metastable dimples become deeper, until metastability is lost in an engulfment event where the ice irreversibly swallows the AFP. Engulfment resembles nucleation in some respects, and this paper develops a model for the "critical profile" and free energy barrier for the engulfment process. Specifically, we variationally optimize the ice-water interface and estimate the free energy barrier as a function of the supercooling, the AFP footprint size, and the distance to neighboring AFPs on the ice surface. Finally, we use symbolic regression to derive a simple closed-form expression for the free energy barrier as a function of two physically interpretable, dimensionless parameters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hossam Farag
- Nuclear, Plasma, and Radiological Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA
| | - Baron Peters
- Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA
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3
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Wu AM. Loci and motifs of the GalNAcα1 → 3/O related glycotopes in the mammalian glycoconjugates and their lectin recognition roles. Glycoconj J 2022; 39:633-651. [PMID: 35962217 DOI: 10.1007/s10719-022-10068-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2022] [Revised: 05/05/2022] [Accepted: 05/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
Galα1 → and GalNAcα1 → are the two essential key sugars in human blood group AB active glycotopes, in which GalNAcα1 → related sequences are located at both sides of the nonreducing and the reducing ends of human blood group A active O-glycans. It is also found at the nonreducing ends of GlcNAc N-glycans and glycosphingolipid(GSL) of human blood group A active glycotopes (Ah) and Forssman antigen (Fp). When monosaccharides and their α, β anomers are involved in basic units to express the complex size of the combining sites of the GalNAcα1 → specific lectins, they can be divided into a cavity site to accommodate the GalNAcα → key sugar and a subsite with a wide and broad range of recognition area to adopt the rest part of sugar sequences or glycotopes. The function of the subsite is assumed to act as an enhancement factor to increase its affinity power. The following three points are the theme of this mini review: (1) the loci and distribution of the GalNAcα1 → related glycotopes in mammalian glycoconjugates are illustrated and their chemical structures are advanced by the expression of the disaccharide units and code system; (2) the sizes and motifs of GalNAcα1 → specific lectin-glycan interactions are given and (3) the role of the polyvalent blood group Ah and Bh glycotopes as blood group AB antigens are proposed. These three highlights should provide an essential background required for the advances in this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Albert M Wu
- Glycome Research Laboratory, Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology, College of Medicine, Chang-Gung University, Tao-yuan, 33302, Taiwan.
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4
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Kamat K, Naullage PM, Molinero V, Peters B. Diffusion Attachment Model for Long Helical Antifreeze Proteins to Ice. Biomacromolecules 2021; 23:513-519. [PMID: 34928587 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biomac.1c01247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Some of the most potent antifreeze proteins (AFPs) are approximately rigid helical structures that bind with one side in contact with the ice surface at specific orientations. These AFPs take random orientations in solution; however, most orientations become sterically inaccessible as the AFP approaches the ice surface. The effect of these inaccessible orientations on the rate of adsorption of AFP to ice has never been explored. Here, we present a diffusion-controlled theory of adsorption kinetics that accounts for these orientational restrictions to predict a rate constant for adsorption (kon, in m/s) as a function of the length and width of the AFP molecules. We find that kon decreases with length and diameter of the AFP and is almost proportional to the inverse of the area of the binding surface. We demonstrate that the restricted orientations create an entropic barrier to AFP adsorption, which we compute to be approximately 7 kBT for most AFPs and up to 9 kBT for Maxi, the largest known AFP. We compare the entropic resistance 1/kon to resistances for diffusion through boundary layers and across typical distances in the extracellular matrix and find that these entropic and diffusion resistances could become comparable in the small confined spaces of biological environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kartik Kamat
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Pavithra M Naullage
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah 84112, United States
| | - Valeria Molinero
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah 84112, United States
| | - Baron Peters
- Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States.,Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
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5
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Giubertoni G, Meister K, DeVries AL, Bakker HJ. Determination of the Solution Structure of Antifreeze Glycoproteins Using Two-Dimensional Infrared Spectroscopy. J Phys Chem Lett 2019; 10:352-357. [PMID: 30615465 PMCID: PMC6369719 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpclett.8b03468] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2018] [Accepted: 01/07/2019] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
We study the solution structure of antifreeze glycoproteins (AFGPs) with linear and two-dimensional infrared spectroscopy (2D-IR). With 2D-IR, we study the coupling between the amide I and amide II vibrations of AFGPs. The measured nonlinear spectral response constitutes a much more clearly resolved amide I spectrum than the linear absorption spectrum of the amide I vibrations and allows us to identify the different structural elements of AFGPs in solution. We find clear evidence for the presence of polyproline II (PPII) helical structures already at room temperature, and we find that the fraction of PPII structures increases when the temperature is decreased to the biological working temperature of AFGP. We observe that inhibition of the antifreeze activity of AFGP using borate buffer or enhancing the antifreeze activity using sulfate buffer does not lead to significant changes in the protein conformation. This finding indicates that AFGPs bind to ice with their sugar side chains.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Konrad Meister
- Max-Planck
Institute for Polymer Research, D-55128 Mainz, Germany
| | - Arthur L. DeVries
- University
of Illinois at Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Huib J. Bakker
- AMOLF, Science Park 104, 1098 XG Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- E-mail:
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6
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Sumii Y, Hibino H, Saidalimu I, Kawahara H, Shibata N. Design and synthesis of galactose-conjugated fluorinated and non-fluorinated proline oligomers: towards antifreeze molecules. Chem Commun (Camb) 2018; 54:9749-9752. [PMID: 30102305 DOI: 10.1039/c8cc05588b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Galactose-conjugated fluorinated and non-fluorinated proline oligomers that exhibit an α-helical structure with hydrophilic and lipophilic parts were designed as potential antifreeze molecules. These galactose-proline oligomers were synthesized and their physical properties were evaluated. Interestingly, the non-fluorinated galactose-proline oligomers showed in contrast to the fluorinated analogues weak antifreeze activity. The difference in antifreeze activity should be attributed to the fluorine gauche effect, which should induce a conformation in fluorinated prolines that is different from that of natural proline. The results obtained in this study thus suggest that the 3D conformation of the galactose-conjugated fluorinated and non-fluorinated proline oligomers is very important for their anti-freezing properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuji Sumii
- Department of Life Science and Applied Chemistry, Department of Nanopharmaceutical Sciences, Nagoya Institute of Technology, Gokiso, Showa-ku, Nagoya 466-5888, Japan.
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Mochizuki K, Molinero V. Antifreeze Glycoproteins Bind Reversibly to Ice via Hydrophobic Groups. J Am Chem Soc 2018; 140:4803-4811. [PMID: 29392937 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.7b13630] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Antifreeze molecules allow organisms to survive in subzero environments. Antifreeze glycoproteins (AFGPs), produced by polar fish, are the most potent inhibitors of ice recrystallization. To date, the molecular mechanism by which AFGPs bind to ice has not yet been elucidated. Mutation experiments cannot resolve whether the binding occurs through the peptide, the saccharides, or both. Here, we use molecular simulations to determine the mechanism and driving forces for binding of AFGP8 to ice, its selectivity for the primary prismatic plane, and the molecular origin of its exceptional ice recrystallization activity. Consistent with experiments, AFGP8 in simulations preferentially adopts the PPII helix secondary structure in solution. We show that the segregation of hydrophilic and hydrophobic groups in the PPII helix is vital for ice binding. Binding occurs through adsorption of methyl groups of the peptide and disaccharides to ice, driven by the entropy of dehydration of the hydrophobic groups as they nest in the cavities at the ice surface. The selectivity to the primary prismatic plane originates in the deeper cavities it has compared to the basal plane. We estimate the free energy of binding of AFGP8 and the longer AFGPs4-6, and find them to be consistent with the reversible binding demonstrated in experiments. The simulations reveal that AFGP8 binds to ice through a myriad of conformations that it uses to diffuse through the ice surface and find ice steps, to which it strongly adsorbs. We interpret that the existence of multiple, weak binding sites is the key for the exceptional ice recrystallization inhibition activity of AFGPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenji Mochizuki
- Department of Chemistry , The University of Utah , Salt Lake City , Utah 84112-0580 , United States.,Institute for Fiber Engineering , Shinshu University , Ueda , Nagano 386-8567 , Japan
| | - Valeria Molinero
- Department of Chemistry , The University of Utah , Salt Lake City , Utah 84112-0580 , United States
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Voets IK. From ice-binding proteins to bio-inspired antifreeze materials. SOFT MATTER 2017; 13:4808-4823. [PMID: 28657626 PMCID: PMC5708349 DOI: 10.1039/c6sm02867e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 117] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2016] [Accepted: 06/16/2017] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Ice-binding proteins (IBP) facilitate survival under extreme conditions in diverse life forms. IBPs in polar fishes block further growth of internalized environmental ice and inhibit ice recrystallization of accumulated internal crystals. Algae use IBPs to structure ice, while ice adhesion is critical for the Antarctic bacterium Marinomonas primoryensis. Successful translation of this natural cryoprotective ability into man-made materials holds great promise but is still in its infancy. This review covers recent advances in the field of ice-binding proteins and their synthetic analogues, highlighting fundamental insights into IBP functioning as a foundation for the knowledge-based development of cheap, bio-inspired mimics through scalable production routes. Recent advances in the utilisation of IBPs and their analogues to e.g. improve cryopreservation, ice-templating strategies, gas hydrate inhibition and other technologies are presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- I K Voets
- Institute for Complex Molecular Systems, Eindhoven University of Technology, Post Office Box 513, 5600 MD Eindhoven, The Netherlands. and Laboratory of Macromolecular and Organic Chemistry, Department of Chemical Engineering and Chemistry, Eindhoven University of Technology, Post Office Box 513, 5600 MD Eindhoven, The Netherlands and Laboratory of Physical Chemistry, Department of Chemical Engineering and Chemistry, Eindhoven University of Technology, Post Office Box 513, 5600 MD Eindhoven, The Netherlands
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9
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Urbańczyk M, Góra J, Latajka R, Sewald N. Antifreeze glycopeptides: from structure and activity studies to current approaches in chemical synthesis. Amino Acids 2016; 49:209-222. [PMID: 27913993 PMCID: PMC5274654 DOI: 10.1007/s00726-016-2368-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2016] [Accepted: 11/18/2016] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Antifreeze glycopeptides (AFGPs) are a class of biological antifreeze agents found predominantly in Arctic and Antarctic species of fish. They possess the ability to regulate ice nucleation and ice crystal growth, thus creating viable life conditions at temperatures below the freezing point of body fluids. AFGPs usually consist of 4–55 repetitions of the tripeptide unit Ala–Ala–Thr that is O-glycosylated at the threonine side chains with β-d-galactosyl-(1 → 3)-α-N-acetyl-d-galactosamine. Due to their interesting properties and high antifreeze activity, they have many potential applications, e.g., in food industry and medicine. Current research is focused towards understanding the relationship between the structural preferences and the activity of the AFGPs, as well as developing time and cost efficient ways of synthesis of this class of molecules. Recent computational studies in conjunction with experimental results from NMR and THz spectroscopies were a possible breakthrough in understanding the mechanism of action of AFGPs. At the moment, as a result of these findings, the focus of research is shifted towards the analysis of behaviour of the hydration shell around AFGPs and the impact of water-dynamics retardation caused by AFGPs on ice crystal growth. In the field of organic synthesis of AFGP analogues, most of the novel protocols are centered around solid-phase peptide synthesis and multiple efforts are made to optimize this approach. In this review, we present the current state of knowledge regarding the structure and activity of AFGPs, as well as approaches to organic synthesis of these molecules with focus on the most recent developments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Małgorzata Urbańczyk
- Department of Organic and Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Chemistry, Wrocław University of Science and Technology, Wybrzeże St. Wyspiańskiego 29, 50-370, Wrocław, Poland
| | - Jerzy Góra
- Department of Organic and Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Chemistry, Wrocław University of Science and Technology, Wybrzeże St. Wyspiańskiego 29, 50-370, Wrocław, Poland
| | - Rafał Latajka
- Department of Organic and Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Chemistry, Wrocław University of Science and Technology, Wybrzeże St. Wyspiańskiego 29, 50-370, Wrocław, Poland.
| | - Norbert Sewald
- Organic Chemistry III, Department of Chemistry, Bielefeld University, Universitätsstrasse 25, 33615, Bielefeld, Germany.
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Balcerzak AK, Capicciotti CJ, Briard JG, Ben RN. Designing ice recrystallization inhibitors: from antifreeze (glyco)proteins to small molecules. RSC Adv 2014. [DOI: 10.1039/c4ra06893a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Ice recrystallization occurs during cryopreservation and is correlated with reduced cell viability after thawing.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Robert N. Ben
- Department of Chemistry
- University of Ottawa
- Ottawa, Canada
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11
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Corcilius L, Santhakumar G, Stone RS, Capicciotti CJ, Joseph S, Matthews JM, Ben RN, Payne RJ. Synthesis of peptides and glycopeptides with polyproline II helical topology as potential antifreeze molecules. Bioorg Med Chem 2013; 21:3569-81. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2013.02.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2013] [Revised: 02/01/2013] [Accepted: 02/12/2013] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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12
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Haridas V, Naik S. Natural macromolecular antifreeze agents to synthetic antifreeze agents. RSC Adv 2013. [DOI: 10.1039/c3ra00081h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
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13
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Nagel L, Budke C, Dreyer A, Koop T, Sewald N. Antifreeze glycopeptide diastereomers. Beilstein J Org Chem 2012; 8:1657-67. [PMID: 23209499 PMCID: PMC3510999 DOI: 10.3762/bjoc.8.190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2012] [Accepted: 08/28/2012] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Antifreeze glycopeptides (AFGPs) are a special class of biological antifreeze agents, which possess the property to inhibit ice growth in the body fluids of arctic and antarctic fish and, thus, enable life under these harsh conditions. AFGPs are composed of 4-55 tripeptide units -Ala-Ala-Thr- glycosylated at the threonine side chains. Despite the structural homology among all the fish species, divergence regarding the composition of the amino acids occurs in peptides from natural sources. Although AFGPs were discovered in the early 1960s, the adsorption mechanism of these macromolecules to the surface of the ice crystals has not yet been fully elucidated. Two AFGP diastereomers containing different amino acid configurations were synthesized to study the influence of amino acid stereochemistry on conformation and antifreeze activity. For this purpose, peptides containing monosaccharide-substituted allo-L- and D-threonine building blocks were assembled by solid-phase peptide synthesis (SPPS). The retro-inverso AFGP analogue contained all amino acids in D-configuration, while the allo-L-diastereomer was composed of L-amino acids, like native AFGPs, with replacement of L-threonine by its allo-L-diastereomer. Both glycopeptides were analyzed regarding their conformational properties, by circular dichroism (CD), and their ability to inhibit ice recrystallization in microphysical experiments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lilly Nagel
- Organic and Bioorganic Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, Bielefeld University, Universitätsstraße 25, 33615 Bielefeld, Germany
| | - Carsten Budke
- Physical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, Bielefeld University, Universitätsstraße 25, 33615 Bielefeld, Germany
| | - Axel Dreyer
- Physical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, Bielefeld University, Universitätsstraße 25, 33615 Bielefeld, Germany
| | - Thomas Koop
- Physical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, Bielefeld University, Universitätsstraße 25, 33615 Bielefeld, Germany
| | - Norbert Sewald
- Organic and Bioorganic Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, Bielefeld University, Universitätsstraße 25, 33615 Bielefeld, Germany
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Nagel L, Budke C, Erdmann RS, Dreyer A, Wennemers H, Koop T, Sewald N. Influence of Sequential Modifications and Carbohydrate Variations in Synthetic AFGP Analogues on Conformation and Antifreeze Activity. Chemistry 2012; 18:12783-93. [DOI: 10.1002/chem.201202119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2012] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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15
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Nagel L, Plattner C, Budke C, Majer Z, DeVries AL, Berkemeier T, Koop T, Sewald N. Synthesis and characterization of natural and modified antifreeze glycopeptides: glycosylated foldamers. Amino Acids 2011; 41:719-32. [DOI: 10.1007/s00726-011-0937-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2011] [Accepted: 04/18/2011] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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16
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Peltier R, Brimble MA, Wojnar JM, Williams DE, Evans CW, DeVries AL. Synthesis and antifreeze activity of fish antifreeze glycoproteins and their analogues. Chem Sci 2010. [DOI: 10.1039/c0sc00194e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
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17
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Amir G, Rubinsky B, Basheer SY, Horowitz L, Jonathan L, Feinberg MS, Smolinsky AK, Lavee J. Improved viability and reduced apoptosis in sub-zero 21-hour preservation of transplanted rat hearts using anti-freeze proteins. J Heart Lung Transplant 2005; 24:1915-29. [PMID: 16297800 DOI: 10.1016/j.healun.2004.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2004] [Revised: 10/18/2004] [Accepted: 11/12/2004] [Indexed: 10/25/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Freeze-tolerant fish survive sub-zero temperatures by non-colligatively lowering the freezing temperature of their body fluids using anti-freeze proteins (AFPs). We sought to evaluate and compare the effects of prolonged sub-zero cryopreservation of transplanted rat hearts using AFP I or AFP III. METHODS Two heterotopic rat heart transplantation protocols were used. In Protocol 1 (n = 104), hearts (n = 8/group) were preserved for 12, 18 and 24 hours in University of Wisconsin solution (UW) at 4 degrees C, UW at -1.3 degrees C, UW/AFP I at -1.3 degrees C and UW/AFP III at -1.3 degrees C, with and without nucleation. Post-operative evaluation consisted of visual viability scoring of the hearts after 60 minutes. Protocol 2 (n = 58) involved evaluation of 24-hour post-transplant viability, echocardiography (fractional shortening [FS], left ventricular end-systolic and -diastolic diameter [ESD, EDD] and anterior and posterior wall systolic and diastolic thickness [AWT-S, AWT-D, PWT-S, PWT-D]), TUNEL staining and electron microscopy (EM) findings for hearts preserved for 18, 21 and 24 hours in UW at 4 degrees C or UW/AFP III at -1.3 degrees C. RESULTS Hearts preserved in UW at -1.3 degrees C with nucleation froze and died. Three of 8 hearts preserved in UW at 4 degrees C for 24 hours died, whereas all hearts preserved at -1.3 degrees C survived. Hearts preserved in UW/AFP for 18 and 24 hours at -1.3 degrees C had superior viability scores compared with those in UW at 4 degrees C. Hearts in AFP III at -1.3 degrees C displayed greater AWT-S and AWT-D (3.5 +/- 0.2 vs 2.4 +/- 0.2, p < 0.05, and 3.5 +/- 0.2 vs 2.2 +/- 0.2, p < 0.05, respectively) after 18-hour preservation. In the 21-hour preservation group, AFP-treated hearts displayed improved echocardiographic systolic contraction indices, including: improved FS (27 +/- 3.7 vs 15 +/- 4, p = 0.04); diminished ESD (0.28 +/- 0.57 vs 0.47 +/- 0.6, p < 0.05); greater AWT-S (3.4 +/- 0.18 vs 2.8 +/- 0.2, p < 0.05); and fewer positively TUNEL-stained nuclei per specimen (35 +/- 14 vs 5.3 +/- 2.7, p = 0.04). Also, improved EM scores were noted compared with UW at 4 degrees C. CONCLUSIONS In prolonged sub-zero cryopreservation, AFPs protect the heart from freezing, improve survival and hemodynamics, and reduce apoptotic cell death.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriel Amir
- Heart Transplantation Unit, Department of Cardiac Surgery, Sheba Medical Center, Tel Hashomer, Israel.
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18
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Wu AM. Carbohydrate structural units in glycoproteins and polysaccharides as important ligands for Gal and GalNAc reactive lectins. J Biomed Sci 2003. [DOI: 10.1007/bf02256319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022] Open
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19
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Harding MM, Anderberg PI, Haymet ADJ. 'Antifreeze' glycoproteins from polar fish. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF BIOCHEMISTRY 2003; 270:1381-92. [PMID: 12653993 DOI: 10.1046/j.1432-1033.2003.03488.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 184] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Antifreeze glycoproteins (AFGPs) constitute the major fraction of protein in the blood serum of Antarctic notothenioids and Arctic cod. Each AFGP consists of a varying number of repeating units of (Ala-Ala-Thr)n, with minor sequence variations, and the disaccharide beta-D-galactosyl-(1-->3)-alpha-N-acetyl-D-galactosamine joined as a glycoside to the hydroxyl oxygen of the Thr residues. These compounds allow the fish to survive in subzero ice-laden polar oceans by kinetically depressing the temperature at which ice grows in a noncolligative manner. In contrast to the more widely studied antifreeze proteins, little is known about the mechanism of ice growth inhibition by AFGPs, and there is no definitive model that explains their properties. This review summarizes the structural and physical properties of AFGPs and advances in the last decade that now provide opportunities for further research in this field. High field NMR spectroscopy and molecular dynamics studies have shown that AFGPs are largely unstructured in aqueous solution. While standard carbohydrate degradation studies confirm the requirement of some of the sugar hydroxyls for antifreeze activity, the importance of following structural elements has not been established: (a) the number of hydroxyls required, (b) the stereochemistry of the sugar hydroxyls (i.e. the requirement of galactose as the sugar), (c) the acetamido group on the first galactose sugar, (d) the stereochemistry of the beta-glycosidic linkage between the two sugars and the alpha-glycosidic linkage to Thr, (e) the requirement of a disaccharide for activity, and (f) the Ala and Thr residues in the polypeptide backbone. The recent successful synthesis of small AFGPs using solution methods and solid-phase chemistry provides the opportunity to perform key structure-activity studies that would clarify the important residues and functional groups required for activity. Genetic studies have shown that the AFGPs present in the two geographically and phylogenetically distinct Antarctic notothenioids and Arctic cod have evolved independently, in a rare example of convergent molecular evolution. The AFGPs exhibit concentration dependent thermal hysteresis with maximum hysteresis (1.2 degrees C at 40 mg x mL-1) observed with the higher molecular mass glycoproteins. The ability to modify the rate and shape of crystal growth and protect cellular membranes during lipid-phase transitions have resulted in identification of a number of potential applications of AFGPs as food additives, and in the cryopreservation and hypothermal storage of cells and tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margaret M Harding
- School of Chemistry, The University of Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.
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Role of glycopeptides and pepddes in inhibition of crystallization of water in polar fishes. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1997. [DOI: 10.1098/rstb.1984.0048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
In the ice-laden polar oceans, water temperatures of — 2 °C are common. This temperature is 1.1 °C below the equilibrium freezing point ( — 0.9 °C) of the fishes’ body fluids. Avoidance of freezing in these environments has been linked to the presence of unusual blood peptides and glycopeptides. These molecules have molecular masses ranging from 2.5 to 20 kDa and are viewed as having antifreeze properties because they lower the freezing point of water by a non-colligative process. A 2% solution of antifreeze has a freezing point of — 1.2 °C and ice formed in their presence melts at — 0.02 °C. Measurements of antifreeze concentrations in ice indicate that these molecules, unlike other proteins of similar size and conformation, are incorporated into the solid phase during freezing and adsorb to it. Adsorption of the antifreezes to ice appears to inhibit growth along the preferred axes (
a
-axes) by raising the curvature of the growth steps on the basal plane. At temperatures below — 1.2 °C, crystal growth occurs in the form of long spicules whose axes are parallel to the
c
-axis, the non-preferred axis of growth.
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22
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Mimura Y, Yamamoto Y, Inoue Y, Chûjô R. N.m.r. study of interaction between sugar and peptide moieties in mucin-type model glycopeptides. Int J Biol Macromol 1992; 14:242-8. [PMID: 1419961 DOI: 10.1016/s0141-8130(05)80036-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
In order to investigate the structural properties of the sugar and peptide linkage region in glycoprotein, some glycopeptides were synthesized as a model for AFGP (antifreeze glycoprotein), which is one of the mucin-type glycoproteins. The results from n.m.r. measurements in DMSO and aqueous conditions revealed that the glycopeptides form an intramolecular hydrogen bond between the amide proton of N-acetylgalactosamine (GalNAc) and the carbonyl oxygen of threonine (Thr) to which the GalNAc is covalently linked. This intramolecular hydrogen bond may play an important role in determining the orientation of the sugar moiety relative to the protein backbone. The roles for the activity of the proline (Pro) residue in AFGP were also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Mimura
- Department of Biomolecular Engineering, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan
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Affiliation(s)
- D A Powers
- Hopkins Marine Station, Department of Biological Sciences, Stanford University, Pacific Grove, California 93950
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Hsiao KC, Cheng CH, Fernandes IE, Detrich HW, DeVries AL. An antifreeze glycopeptide gene from the antarctic cod Notothenia coriiceps neglecta encodes a polyprotein of high peptide copy number. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1990; 87:9265-9. [PMID: 2251271 PMCID: PMC55145 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.87.23.9265] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The antarctic fish Notothenia coriiceps neglecta synthesizes eight antifreeze glycopeptides (AFGP 1-8; Mr 2600-34,000) to avoid freezing in its ice-laden freezing habitat. We report here the sequence of one of its AFGP genes. The structural gene contains 46 tandemly repeated segments, each encoding one AFGP peptide plus a 3-amino acid spacer. Most of the repeats (44/46) code for peptides of AFGP 8; the remaining 2 code for peptides of AFGP 7. At least 2 of the 3 amino acids in the spacers could act as substrate for chymotrypsin-like proteases. The nucleotide sequence between the translation initiation codon (ATG) and the first AFGP-coding segment is G + T-rich and encodes a presumptive 37-residue signal peptide of unusual sequence. Primer extension establishes the transcription start site at nucleotide 43 upstream from ATG. CAAT and TATA boxes begin at nucleotides 53 and 49, respectively, upstream from the transcription start site. The polyadenylylation signal, AATAAA, is located approximately 240 nucleotides downstream from the termination codon. A mRNA (approximately 3 kilobases) was found that matches the size of this AFGP gene. Thus, this AFGP gene encodes a secreted, high-copy-number polyprotein that is processed posttranslationally to produce active AFGPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- K C Hsiao
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of Illinois, Urbana 61801
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Abstract
Fish represent the largest and most diverse group of vertebrates. Their evolutionary position relative to other vertebrates and their ability to adapt to a wide variety of environments make them ideal for studying both organismic and molecular evolution. A number of other characteristics make them excellent experimental models for studies in embryology, neurobiology, endocrinology, environmental biology, and other areas. In fact, they have played a critical role in the development of several of these disciplines. Research techniques that enable scientists to make isogenic lines in a single generation, create and maintain mutants, culture cells, and transfer cloned genes into embryos signal an increasing role for fish as experimental models.
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Affiliation(s)
- D A Powers
- Hopkins Marine Station, Stanford University, Pacific Grove, CA 93950
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D'Avino R, Caruso C, Romano M, Camardella L, Rutigliano B, Di Prisco G. Hemoglobin from the Antarctic fish Notothenia coriiceps neglecta. 2. Amino acid sequence of the alpha chain of Hb1. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF BIOCHEMISTRY 1989; 179:707-13. [PMID: 2920735 DOI: 10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb14604.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
The complete amino acid sequence of the alpha chain of the main hemoglobin of the Antarctic fish Notothenia coriiceps neglecta (family Nototheniidae) has been determined. It consists of 142 residues; an acetylated seryl residue is at the amino terminal. The molecular mass is 15,519 Da. In comparison with alpha-chain sequences of non-Antarctic poikilothermic fish hemoglobins, the homology appears to be significantly lower than that existing among the latter species. A higher homology has been found with the alpha-chain sequence of the non-poikilothermic bluefin tuna.
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Affiliation(s)
- R D'Avino
- Institute of Protein Biochemistry and Enzymology, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Naples, Italy
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Wu AM, Sugii S, Gruezo FG, Kabat EA. Immunochemical studies on the N-acetyllactosamine beta-(1----6)-linked trisaccharide specificity of Ricinus communis agglutinin. Carbohydr Res 1988; 178:243-57. [PMID: 3191508 DOI: 10.1016/0008-6215(88)80116-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
The combining site of Ricinus communis agglutinin (RCA1) was studied by quantitative precipitin and precipitin inhibition assays. Of 31 complex carbohydrates tested, all except active and inactive antifreeze glycoproteins, Streptococcus group C polysaccharide, and native rat salivary glycoprotein, reacted strongly, and 22 completely precipitated the lectin, indicating that RCA1 has both a broad range of affinity and a low solubility of its carbohydrate-bound complex. Of the monosaccharides and glycosides tested for inhibition of precipitation, p-nitrophenyl beta-D-galactopyranoside was the best. It was about 6.4 times better than methyl beta-D-galactopyranoside. The beta anomer of glycosides of D-galactose was much more potent than the corresponding alpha anomer. Among the oligosaccharides tested, beta-D-Galp-(1----4)-beta-D-GlcpNAc-(1----6)-D-Gal was the best inhibitor, which was approximately 2/3 as active as p-nitrophenyl beta-D-galactopyranoside. It was approximately 1.4 times as active as beta-D-Gal-(1----4)-D-GlcNAc (N-acetyllactosamine), twice as active as beta-D-Gal-(1----3)-D-GlcNAc, and 4.5 times more active than lacto-N-tetraose. From the results, it can be concluded that; (a) hydrophobic interaction is important for binding; (b) the combining site of this lectin is at least as large as a trisaccharide; and (c) of the compounds studied, the trisaccharide beta-D-Galp-(1----4)-beta-D-GlcpNAc-(1----6)-D-Gal was the most complementary to the human blood group I Ma determinant beta-D-Galp-(1----4)-beta-D-GlcpNAc-(1----6)-D-Gal.
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Affiliation(s)
- A M Wu
- Department of Veterinary Pathology, Texas A & M University, College of Veterinary Medicine, College Station 77843
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Differential Binding Properties of GalNAc and/or Gal Specific Lectins. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 1988. [DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4613-1663-3_9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register]
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DeVries AL. The role of antifreeze glycopeptides and peptides in the freezing avoidance of antarctic fishes. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1988. [DOI: 10.1016/0305-0491(88)90302-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Burcham TS, Osuga DT, Yeh Y, Feeney RE. A kinetic description of antifreeze glycoprotein activity. J Biol Chem 1986. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(19)84574-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
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Burcham TS, Knauf MJ, Osuga DT, Feeney RE, Yeh Y. Antifreeze glycoproteins: influence of polymer length and ice crystal habit on activity. Biopolymers 1984; 23:1379-95. [PMID: 6466773 DOI: 10.1002/bip.360230720] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
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Wu AM. Differential binding characteristics and applications of DGal beta 1----3DGalNAc specific lectins. Mol Cell Biochem 1984; 61:131-41. [PMID: 6727869 DOI: 10.1007/bf00222491] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
The binding properties of Arachis hypogaea (PNA), Bauhinia purpurea alba (BPL), Maclura pomifera ( MPL ) and Sophora japonica (SJL) lectins were studied by quantitative precipitin and precipitin inhibition assays, demonstrating them to be most specific for DGal beta 1---- 3DGalNAc residues. Additionally, each lectin had its own binding characteristic such as different binding activities to DGal beta 1---- 4DGlcNAc or DGal beta 1---- 3DGlcNAc beta 1----linked oligosaccharides, and/or DGalNAc alpha 1----linked to the Ser or Thr of the protein moiety. These differential binding characteristics can be used for investigating fine differences of the carbohydrate structure of the glycoconjugates, especially those having DGal beta 1---- 3DGalNAc residues as terminal non-reducing ends.
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Schrag JD, Devries AL. The effect of freezing rate on the cooperativity of antifreeze glycopeptides. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1983. [DOI: 10.1016/0300-9629(83)90619-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Haschemeyer AE, Jannasch HW. Antifreeze glycopeptides of antarctic fishes. COMPARATIVE BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY. B, COMPARATIVE BIOCHEMISTRY 1983; 76:545-8. [PMID: 6641176 DOI: 10.1016/0305-0491(83)90290-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
A method is described for analysis of amino acid composition and concentration of antifreeze glycopeptides of Antarctic fish by automatic amino acid analysis of hydrolyzed samples purified by trichloroacetic acid fractionation. Preparations were 98% pure and showed characteristic alanine, threonine and proline compositions. Analyses were carried out in 17 known species of Ross Sea, Antarctica, fishes and in 11 undescribed species tentatively placed in genera, where possible, or families. Collections have been preserved for classification. The results provide evidence of species specificity in amino acid composition and plasma concentration of these substances. Closely related species showed nearly identical Pro/Ala ratios, but differing concentrations. The results do not support reclassification of Trematomus and Notothenia into a single genus or the inclusion of the genus Pleuragramma in the family Nototheniidae. Data obtained for developing ovaries of 6 species showed concentrations of these substances (per unit wet wt) about one-half those of plasma and similar, but not identical, amino acid compositions to those of plasma. The total amount in eggs was 4 times that of plasma in pre-spawning individuals. Calculations are presented to indicate the role of these substances in the protein metabolic economy of the animal for Nototheniidae and Channichthyidae.
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36
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O'Grady SM, Schrag JD, Raymond JA, Devries AL. Comparison of antifreeze glycopeptides from arctic and antarctic fishes. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1982. [DOI: 10.1002/jez.1402240207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Schrag JD, O'Grady SM, DeVries AL. Relationship of amino acid composition and molecular weight of antifreeze glycopeptides to non-colligative freezing point depression. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA 1982; 717:322-6. [PMID: 7115772 DOI: 10.1016/0304-4165(82)90186-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Many polar fishes synthesize a group of eight glycopeptides that exhibit a non-colligative lowering of the freezing point of water. These glycopeptides range in molecular weight between 2600 and 33 700. The largest glycopeptides [1-5] lower the freezing point more than the small ones on a weight basis and contain only two amino acids, alanine and threonine, with the disaccharide galactose-N-acetyl-galactosamine attached to threonine. The small glycopeptides, 6, 7, and 8, also lower the freezing point and contain proline, which periodically substitutes for alanine. Glycopeptides with similar antifreeze properties isolated from the saffron cod and the Atlantic tomcod contain an additional amino acid, arginine, which substitutes for threonine in glycopeptide 6. In this study we address the question of whether differences in amino acid composition or molecular weight between large and small glycopeptides are responsible for the reduced freezing point depressing capability of the low molecular weight glycopeptides. The results indicate that the degree of amino acid substitutions that occur in glycopeptides 6-8 do not have a significant effect on the unusual freezing point lowering and that the observed decrease in freezing point depression with smaller glycopeptides can be accounted for on the basis of molecular weight.
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Sarkar M, Wu AM, Kabat EA. Immunochemical studies on the carbohydrate specificity of Maclura pomifera lectin. Arch Biochem Biophys 1981; 209:204-18. [PMID: 7283438 DOI: 10.1016/0003-9861(81)90273-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
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41
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Wu AM, Kabat EA, Gruezo FG, Allen HJ. Immunochemical studies on the combining site of the D-galactopyranose and 2-acetamido-2-deoxy-D-galactopyranose specific lectin isolated from Bauhinia purpurea alba seeds. Arch Biochem Biophys 1980; 204:622-39. [PMID: 7447466 DOI: 10.1016/0003-9861(80)90074-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
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42
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Haschemeyer AEV, Mathews RW. Antifreeze Glycoprotein Synthesis in the Antarctic Fish Trematomus hansoni by Constant Infusion in Vivo. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1980. [DOI: 10.1086/physzool.53.4.30157876] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
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43
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Berman E, Allerhand A, DeVries A. Natural abundance carbon 13 nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy of antifreeze glycoproteins. J Biol Chem 1980. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(19)85503-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
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44
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Geoghegan K, Osuga D, Ahmed A, Yeh Y, Feeney R. Antifreeze glycoproteins from Polar fish. Structural requirements for function of glycopeptide 8. J Biol Chem 1980. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(19)86228-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
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Abstract
The evidence that reverse turns frequently occur as structural components of proteins, as well as of linear and cyclic peptides, is overwhelming. This review summarizes and examines critically the experimental evidence derived from physical methods such as 1H and 13C nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, spin-lattice relaxation time, circular dichroism, IR spectroscopy, and X-ray crystallography. Secondly, theoretical evidence obtained from energy calculations, which rely on empirical energy functions, and correlative methods, which rely on algorithms based on the frequency of occurrence of amino acids, is evaluated. In particular, those theoretical studies for which complementary physical studies have been completed are emphasized. Finally, examples of structure-function relationships involving reverse turns and their biological recognition are demonstrated.
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Patterson JL, Duman JG. Composition of a protein antifreeze from larvae of the beetle, Tenebrio molitor. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1979. [DOI: 10.1002/jez.1402100220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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Morris H, Thompson M, Osuga D, Ahmed A, Chan S, Vandenheede J, Feeney R. Antifreeze glycoproteins from the blood of an antarctic fish. The structure of the proline-containing glycopeptides. J Biol Chem 1978. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(17)34670-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
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49
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Loucheux-Lefebvre MH. Predicted beta-turns in peptide and glycopeptide anti-freezes. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1978; 81:1352-6. [PMID: 566550 DOI: 10.1016/0006-291x(78)91284-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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50
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