Biosynthesis of lignoceric acid from behenyl0COA in mouse brain microsomes. Comparison between normal and Quaking mutant

Brain microsomal fatty acid elongation is increased in abcd1-deficient mouse during active myelination phase

The dysfunction of ABCD1, a peroxisomal ABC protein, leads to the perturbation of very long chain fatty acid (VLCFA) metabolism and is the cause of X-linked adrenoleukodystrophy. Abcd1-deficient mice exhibit an accumulation of saturated VLCFAs, such as C26:0, in all tissues, especially the brain. The present study sought to measure microsomal fatty acid elongation activity in the brain of wild-type (WT) and abcd1-deficient mice during the course of development. The fatty acid elongation activity in the microsomal fraction was measured by the incorporation of [2-(14)C]malonyl-CoA into fatty acids in the presence of C16:0-CoA or C20:0-CoA. Cytosolic fatty acid synthesis activity was completely inhibited by the addition of N-ethylmaleimide (NEM). The microsomal fatty acid elongation activity in the brain was significantly high at 3 weeks after birth and decreased substantially at 3 months after birth. Furthermore, we detected two different types of microsomal fatty acid elongation activity by using C16:0-CoA or C20:0-CoA as the substrate and found the activity toward C20:0-CoA in abcd1-deficient mice was higher than the WT 3-week-old animals. These results suggest that during the active myelination phase the microsomal fatty acid elongation activity is stimulated in abcd1-deficient mice, which in turn perturbs the lipid composition in myelin.

Effects of feeding Lunaria oil rich in nervonic and erucic acids on the fatty acid compositions of sphingomyelins from erythrocytes, liver, and brain of the quaking mouse mutant

Feeding an oil from Lunaria biennis rich in 22:1n-9 and 24:1n-9 to homozygous quaking (qk.qk) mice caused a large increase in the percentage of 24:1n-9 and corresponding decreases in the percentage of 24:0 and 22:0 in sphingomyelins from liver, erythrocytes, and milk. Brain sphingomyelin from 2-wk-old qk.qk pups born to qk.qk mothers maintained on the Lunaria oil had essentially normal percentage of 24:1n-9 and 18:0, in contrast to pups born to mothers maintained on a control oil rich in 18:1n-9 whose brain sphingomyelin had a markedly reduced percentage of 24:1n-9 and an increased percentage of 18:0. After 2 wk and up to and beyond weaning, the qk.qk pups from Lunaria-fed mothers weaned on to the Lunaria diet had a markedly decreased percentage of 24:1n-9 in their brain sphingomyelin, accompanied by an increased percentage of 18:0, as compared to heterozygous quaking mice. However, the percentage of 24:1n-9 in brain sphingomyelin in qk.qk pups weaned on to the Lunaria diet continued throughout this period (2-8 wk postbirth) to be significantly higher than in qk.qk pups weaned on to the control diet. We conclude that dietary 24:1n-9 influences the fatty acid composition of brain sphingomyelin in qk.qk mice, but only via the mother in pre- or early postnatal animals. We further consider that the dietary effects may be elicited mainly in the sphingomyelin of nonmyelinated brain cells, and that the nervonic acid in myelin sphingomyelin may be formed mainly by chain elongation in oligodendrocytes from shorter chain fatty acid precursors.

The fatty acid chain elongation system of mammalian endoplasmic reticulum

Much has been learned about FACES of the endoplasmic reticulum since its discovery in the early 1960s. FACES consists of four component reactions, requires the fatty acid to be activated in the form of a CoA derivative, utilizes reducing equivalents in the form of NADH or NADPH, is induced by a fat-free diet, resides on the cytoplasmic surface of the endoplasmic reticulum, appears to function in concert with the desaturase system and appears to exist in multiple forms (either multiple condensing enzymes connected to a single pathway or multiple pathways). FACES has been found in all tissues investigated, namely, liver, brain, kidney, lung, adrenals, retina, testis, small intestine, blood cells (lymphocytes and neutrophils) and fibroblasts, with one exception--the heart has no measurable activity. Yet, much more needs to be learned. The critical, inducible and rate-limiting condensing enzyme has resisted solubilization and purification; the purification of the other components has met with limited success. We know nothing about the site of synthesis of each component of FACES. How is each component enzyme integrated into the endoplasmic reticulum membrane? Is there a single mRNA directing synthesis of all four components or are there four separate mRNAs? How are elongation and desaturation coordinated? What is (are) the physiological regulator(s) of FACES--ADP, AMP, IP3, G-proteins, phosphorylation, CoA, Ca2+, cAMP, none of these? The molecular biology of FACES is only in the fetal stage of development. We are only scratching the surface--it is an undiscovered country.

Decreased long-chain fatty acyl CoA elongation activity in quaking and jimpy mouse brain: deficiency in one enzyme or multiple enzyme activities?

Using long-chain fatty acyl CoAs (arachidoyl CoA and behenoyl CoA), a decrease in overall fatty acid chain elongation activity was observed in the quaking and jimpy mouse brain microsomes relative to controls. Arachidoyl CoA (20:0) and behenoyl CoA (22:0) elongation activities were depressed to about 50% and 80% of control values in quaking and jimpy mice, respectively. Measurement of the individual enzymatic activities of the elongation system revealed a single deficiency in enzyme activity; only the condensation activity was reduced to the same extent as total elongation in both quaking and jimpy mice. The activities of the other three enzymes, beta-ketoacyl CoA reductase, beta-hydroxyacyl CoA dehydrase, and trans-2-enoyl CoA reductase, in both mutants were similar to the activities present in the control mouse. In addition, the activities of these three enzymes were more than two to three orders of magnitude greater than the condensing enzyme activity in all three groups, establishing that the condensing enzyme catalyzes the rate-limiting reaction step of total elongation. When the elongation of palmitoyl CoA was measured, only a 25% decrease in total elongation occurred in both mutants; a similar percent decrease in the condensation of palmitoyl CoA also was observed. The activities of the other three enzymes were unaffected. These results support the concept of either multiple elongation pathways or multiple condensing enzymes.

Decrease of palmitoyl-CoA elongation in platelets and leukocytes in the patient of hereditary methemoglobinemia associated with mental retardation

Effect of the deficiency of NADH-cytochrome b5 reductase on fatty acid elongation was studied in the platelets and leukocytes taken from a patient of hereditary methemoglobinemia associated with mental retardation. The activity of fatty acid elongation was determined by measuring the incorporation of [2-14C]malonyl-CoA into palmitoyl-CoA. The de novo biosynthesis of fatty acids was blocked by the addition of phosphotransacetylase, and the elongation system could be assayed in the homogenates separated from de novo biosynthesis. As compared to normal subjects approximately 40% decrease of fatty acid elongation was observed both in the platelets and leukocytes from the patient.

Palmitoyl-CoA elongation in brain microsomes: dependence on cytochrome b5 and NADH-cytochrome b5 reductase

Experiments were performed to demonstrate the involvement of electron transport system in fatty acid elongation in rat brain microsomes. Mercuric chloride and p-chloromercuriphenylsulfonate, inhibitors on NADH-cytochrome b5 reductase, at 32 microM inhibited NADH-supported palmitoyl-CoA elongation to 30 and 60% of control activity, respectively, whereas NADPH-supported palmitoyl-CoA elongation was unaffected by these mercurials. An antibody to rat liver NADH-cytochrome b5 reductase inhibited brain microsomal NADH-cytochrome b5 reductase activity and NADH-dependent palmitoyl-CoA elongation. Treatment of brain microsomes with trypsin diminished the cytochrome b5 content; NADH- and NADPH-cytochrome c reductase activities were significantly decreased, but the decrease in NADH-cytochrome b5 reductase activity was relatively small. Whereas essentially no incorporation of malonyl-CoA into palmitoyl-CoA was observed with trypsin-treated microsomes, addition of detergent-solubilized cytochrome b5 resulted in a recovery of fatty acid elongation. These results indicate the presence of an electron transport system, NADH-NADH-cytochrome b5 reductase-cytochrome b5-fatty acid elongation, in brain microsomes.

Lipids of nervous tissue: composition and metabolism

As indicated in the Introduction, the many significant developments in the recent past in our knowledge of the lipids of the nervous system have been collated in this article. That there is a sustained interest in this field is evident from the rather long bibliography which is itself selective. Obviously, it is not possible to summarize a review in which the chemistry, distribution and metabolism of a great variety of lipids have been discussed. However, from the progress of research, some general conclusions may be drawn. The period of discovery of new lipids in the nervous system appears to be over. All the major lipid components have been discovered and a great deal is now known about their structure and metabolism. Analytical data on the lipid composition of the CNS are available for a number of species and such data on the major areas of the brain are also at hand but information on the various subregions is meagre. Such investigations may yet provide clues to the role of lipids in brain function. Compared to CNS, information on PNS is less adequate. Further research on PNS would be worthwhile as it is amenable for experimental manipulation and complex mechanisms such as myelination can be investigated in this tissue. There are reports correlating lipid constituents with the increased complexity in the organization of the nervous system during evolution. This line of investigation may prove useful. The basic aim of research on the lipids of the nervous tissue is to unravel their functional significance. Most of the hydrophobic moieties of the nervous tissue lipids are comprised of very long chain, highly unsaturated and in some cases hydroxylated residues, and recent studies have shown that each lipid class contains characteristic molecular species. Their contribution to the properties of neural membranes such as excitability remains to be elucidated. Similarly, a large proportion of the phospholipid molecules in the myelin membrane are ethanolamine plasmalogens and their importance in this membrane is not known. It is firmly established that phosphatidylinositol and possibly polyphosphoinositides are involved with events at the synapse during impulse propagation, but their precise role in molecular terms is not clear. Gangliosides, with their structural complexity and amphipathic nature, have been implicated in a number of biological events which include cellular recognition and acting as adjuncts at receptor sites. More recently, growth promoting and neuritogenic functions have been ascribed to gangliosides. These interesting properties of gangliosides wIll undoubtedly attract greater attention in the future.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Microsomal electron-transport reductase activities and fatty acid elongation in rat brain. Developmental changes, regional distribution and comparison with liver activity

Gestational and postnatal changes of microsomal NADH:cytochrome b5 reductase and NADPH:cytochrome c reductase activities were examined in rat brain. The specific activity of NADH:cytochrome b5 reductase was high at 18-19 days of gestational age, decreased to a minimum at 4 to 6 days after birth and increased thereafter. An essentially similar developmental pattern was observed for the specific activity of NADPH:cytochrome c reductase. In contrast, the specific activities of these reductases in liver microsomes were low, did not display a peak during gestation and increased steadily to a maximum at 40-50 days after birth. The rate of incorporation of [2-14C]malonyl-CoA into palmitoyl-CoA in brain microsomes was found to be high in the foetus, sharply decreased to a minimum at the time of birth and increased thereafter. The activity of fatty acid elongation in liver microsomes was much less than that in brain during gestation and increased rapidly after birth to values at 50-60 days 20-fold greater than the foetal activity. NADH and NADPH were equally effective for brain microsomal fatty acid elongation. Regional distribution of cytochrome reductase activities and the activity of fatty acid elongation showed the lowest specific activity in cerebellum. These results suggest that brain microsomal electron transport may be correlated with the developmental alteration in fatty acid elongation.

Increased lipid content in the rat axotomized superior cervical ganglion

Transection of postganglionic nerves of the rat superior cervical ganglion results in significant increases in the concentration of lipid as well as the total content of lipid in the ganglion. The purpose of this work was to characterize the effect of axotomy on the major classes of lipid in the ganglion and to examine possible relationships among increases in lipid content and changes in steady-state concentrations of metabolites utilized in lipid biosynthesis. Major classes of lipids in axotomized and contralateral intact ganglia were compared using the Folch extraction and partitioning scheme. Analyses of lipids were carried out 7 days after axotomy because total lipid content was increased maximally at that time. The increase in lipid content in axotomized ganglia was related primarily to an increase in phospholipids. Amounts of gangliosides, cerebrosides, cholesterol, and proteolipid protein did not change significantly after axotomy. The elevation of phospholipid content was accompanied by increases in steady-state concentrations of alpha-glycerophosphate and decreases in Coenzyme A in the ganglion; however, concentrations of acetyl CoA and long-chain acyl CoA compounds did not change significantly in axotomized ganglia. Increases in alpha-glycerophosphate do not appear to arise from enhanced utilization of glucose because alpha-glycerophosphate dehydrogenase activity was decreased in axotomized ganglia and the incorporation of [U-14C] glucose into lipids in explants of the axotomized ganglia in vitro was not elevated. In contrast, incorporation of [U-14C] glycerol into lipids of explants from axotomized ganglia was increased in vitro. The results suggest that utilization of extracellular glycerol for phospholipid biosynthesis may be enhanced in the rat's axotomized superior cervical ganglion.

Cytochrome reductase activities in rat brain microsomes during development

Postnatal developmental alterations of microsomal NADH-cytochrome b5 reductase and NADPH-cytochrome c reductase activities were determined in the brain of rats. The reductase activities increased from a low level in the immature brain to a maximum level at 23 to 30 days of age, and then decreased slightly to a plateau. The periods of the activity increments were in accord with those of the enhancement of microsomal fatty acid elongation. The specific activities of these reductases were high in cerebral hemispheres and medulla oblongata, intermediate in midbrain, and lowest in cerebellum of the four regions of 20-day-old rat brain.

Distribution of radioactivity in myelin lipids following subcutaneous injection of [14C]stearate

Blood fatty acids are an important parameter for the synthesis of brain myelin as exogenous stearic acid is needed: after subcutaneous injection to 18-day-old mice this labelled stearic acid is transported into brain myelin and incorporated into its lipids. However the acid is partly metabolized in the brain by elongation (thus providing very long chain fatty acids, mainly lignoceric acid) or by degradation to acetate units (utilized for synthesis of medium chain fatty acids as palmitic acid, and cholesterol). These metabolites are further incorporated into myelin lipids. The myelin lipid radioactivity increases up to 3 days; most of the activity is found in phospholipids; their fatty acids are labelled in saturated as well as in polyunsaturated homologues but sphingolipids, especially cerebrosides, contain also large amounts of radioactivity (which is mainly found in very long chain fatty acids, almost all in lignoceric acid). The occurrence of unesterified fatty acids must be pointed out, these molecules unlike other lipids, are found in constant amount (expressed in radioactivity per mg myelin lipid).

Lignoceric acid biosynthesis in the developing brain. Activities of mitochondrial acetyl-CoA-dependent synthesis and microsomal malonyl-CoA chain-elongating system in relation to myelination. Comparison between normal mouse and dysmyelinating mutants (quaking and jimpy)

Age-related changes in the activities of microsomal and mitochondrial elongating systems have been determined in mouse brain from birth to maturity. In microsomes, the components necessary for behenyl-CoA (docosanoly-CoA) elongation have been found to be NADPH and malonyl-CoA. In mitochondria, both NADH and NADPH are used and acetyl-CoA is the only donor of two-carbon-atoms unit. The synthesised fatty acids were identified by thin-layer and gas chromatography. The specific activity is higher in microsomes than in mitochondria. In microsomes, the specific activity for malonyl-Co-A incorporation reached a maximum at 15 - 20 days of age; this peak was not obtained in the Quaking and Jimpy mutants. The increase in enzyme activity (specific activity and total activity per brain) paralleled the myelin deposition. The activity of the mitochondrial system increases regularly during development: it is not correlated to myelination and it is not affected in the Quaking mutant. The interplay between microsomal and mitochondrial elongation systems is studied.

[Biosynthesis of fatty acids in mouse brain mitochondria in the presence of malonyl-CoA or acetyl-CoA]

Incorporation of malonyl-CoA or acetyl-CoA is studied in mouse brain mitochondrial fatty acids. Rupture of mitochondria is necessary ; Triton X-100 gives the best result. Other detergents or sonication are of lesser efficiency. Cofactor requirements have been studied : NADH and NADPH have been tested ; ATP increases biosynthesis and CoA causes an inhibition. Two systems of biosynthesis are involved : -- One is a de novo system using malonyl-CoA. Malonyl-CoA alone is incorporated and synthesizes mainly C16, indicating the existence of a malonly-CoA decarboxylase although elongation of short chain fatty acids cannot be excluded. Addition of acetyl-CoA increases the biosynthesis and palmityl-CoA when added causes an inhibition. -- The other system, using acetyl-CoA, elongates exogenous palmityl-CoA ; endogenous acyl-CoAs are not elongated by acetyl-CoA. All these results are confirmed by radiogas chromatographic studies of the reactions products.

Nervonic acid biosynthesis by erucyl-CoA elongation in normal and quaking mouse brain microsomes. Elongation of other unsaturated fatty acyl-CoAs (mono and poly-unsaturated)

Biosynthesis of nervonic acid by enzymatic elongation of erucyl-CoA has been studied in mouse brain microsomes. The substrate and cofactor requirements have been measured. Malonyl-CoA and reduced nicotine-adenine-dinucleotide phosphate are required, but not FMN, FAD or NADH. The effect of protein concentration, incubation time, ATP and CoA has been determined; the reaction products were checked by gas-liquid chromatography with automatic counting of the eluate. Very little activity was found in hydroxylated fatty acids. In the presence of phosphotransacetylase (which impedes the de novo microsomal system), the main reaction product was nervonic acid. It is concluded that nervonic acid is biosynthesised by elongation using a two-carbon unit from malonyl-CoA. The same enzyme biosynthesises saturated and mono-unsaturated very long chain fatty acids. The elongation capacity of "quaking" microsomes is reduced to 30% of the normal value with both erucyl-CoA and behenyl-CoA. Elongation of trans isomer (brassidyl-CoA) and poly-unsaturated homologue (clupanodonyl-CoA) was compared to elongation of erucyl-CoA in both normal and mutant mice. Both unsaturated acyl-CoAs are elongated under the same conditions as erucyl-CoA in brain: the poly-unsaturated acyl-CoA is elongated more actively than the mono-unsaturated acyl-CoA in the mutant.