Induction and stimulation of 92-kDa gelatinase/type IV collagenase production in osteosarcoma and fibrosarcoma cell lines by tumor necrosis factor alpha

Insights into the role of neutrophils in neuropsychiatric systemic lupus erythematosus: Current understanding and future directions

Central nervous system (CNS) involvement of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), termed neuropsychiatric SLE (NPSLE), is a major and debilitating manifestation of the disease. While patients with SLE mostly complain of common neuropsychological symptoms such headache and mild mood disorders that may not even be technically attributed to SLE, many SLE patients present with life-threatening NPSLE syndromes such as cerebrovascular disease, seizures and psychosis that are equally challenging in terms of early diagnosis and therapy. While we are just beginning to unravel some mysteries behind the immunologic basis of NPSLE, advancements in the mechanistic understanding of the complex pathogenic processes of NPSLE have been emerging through recent murine and human studies. The pathogenic pathways implicated in NPSLE are multifarious and various immune effectors such as cell-mediated inflammation, autoantibodies and cytokines including type I interferons have been found to act in concert with the disruption of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and other neurovascular interfaces. Beyond antimicrobial functions, neutrophils are emerging as decision-shapers during innate and adaptive immune responses. Activated neutrophils have been recognized to be involved in ischemic and infective processes in the CNS by releasing neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs), matrix metalloproteinase-9 and proinflammatory cytokines. In the context of NPSLE, these mechanisms contribute to BBB disruption, neuroinflammation and externalization of modified proteins on NETs that serve as autoantigens. Neutrophils that sediment within the peripheral blood mononuclear cell fraction after density centrifugation of blood are generally defined as low-density neutrophils (LDNs) or low-density granulocytes. LDNs are a proinflammatory subset of neutrophils that are increased with SLE disease activity and are primed to undergo NETosis and release cytokines such as interferon-α and tumor necrosis factor. This review discusses the immunopathogenesis of NPSLE with a focus on neutrophils as a core mediator of the disease and potential target for translational research in NPSLE.

Increased salivary syndecan-1 level is associated with salivary gland function and inflammation in patients with Sjögren's syndrome

Objectives: Syndecan-1 (SDC-1), a transmembrane heparin sulphate proteoglycan predominantly expressed on epithelial cells, also exists in a soluble form through ectodomain shedding. SDC-1 expression and shedding may be modulated in the inflammatory milieu of primary Sjögren's syndrome (SS). We investigated SDC-1 expression in minor salivary glands (MSGs) and analysed the association between salivary or plasma levels of SDC-1 and clinical parameters in SS.Method: We measured salivary and plasma SDC-1 levels via an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and assessed the salivary flow rates (SFRs) in 70 patients with SS and 35 healthy subjects. Disease activity indices, serological markers, salivary gland scintigraphy, and MSG biopsy were evaluated in patients with SS.Results: SDC-1 expression was upregulated on ductal epithelial cells in inflamed salivary glands. Salivary SDC-1 levels in patients significantly exceeded those in healthy subjects [median (interquartile range) 49.0 (20.7-79.1) vs 3.7 (1.7-6.3) ng/mL, p < 0.001] and inversely correlated with SFRs (r = -0.358, p = 0.032) and ejection fractions of the parotid (r = -0.363, p = 0.027) and submandibular (r = -0.485, p = 0.002) glands in salivary gland scintigraphy. Plasma SDC-1 levels were significantly correlated with the EULAR Sjögren's Syndrome Disease Activity Index (r = 0.507, p < 0.001) and EULAR Sjögren's Syndrome Patient Reported Index (r = 0.267, p = 0.033). Focus scores were correlated with salivary SDC-1 levels (r = 0.551, p = 0.004).Conclusion: Salivary and plasma SDC-1 levels may constitute potential biomarkers for salivary gland function and disease activity, respectively, in SS.

Effects of proteasome inhibitors on cytokines, metalloproteinases and their inhibitors and collagen type-I expression in periprosthetic tissues and fibroblasts from loose arthroplasty endoprostheses

Objective: Aseptic loosening is a major problem in total joint replacement. Implant wear debris provokes a foreign body host response and activates cells to produce a variety of mediators and ROS, leading to periprosthetic osteolysis. Elevated ROS levels can harm proteasome function. Proteasome inhibitors have been reported to alter the secretory profile of cells involved in inflammation and also to induce ROS production. In this work, we aimed to document the effects of proteasome inhibitors MG-132 and Epoxomicin, on the production of factors involved in aseptic loosening, in periprosthetic tissues and fibroblasts, and investigate the role of proteasome impairment in periprosthetic osteolysis. Materials and methods: IL-6 levels in tissue cultures were determined by sandwich ELISA. MMP-1, -3, -13, -14 and TIMP-1 levels in tissue or cell cultures were determined by indirect ELISA. Results for MMP-1 and TIMP-1 in tissue cultures were confirmed by Western blotting. MMP-2 and MMP-9 levels were determined by gelatin zymography. Gene expression of IL-6, MMP-1,-3,-14, TIMP-1 and collagen type-I was determined by RT-PCR. Results: Results show that proteasome inhibition induces the expression of ΜΜΡ-1, -2, -3, -9 and suppresses that of IL-6, MMP-14, -13, TIMP-1 and collagen type I, enhancing the collagenolytic and gelatinolytic activity already present in periprosthetic tissues, as documented in various studies. Conclusions: These findings suggest that proteasome impairment could be a contributing factor to aseptic loosening. Protection and enhancement of proteasome efficacy could thus be considered as an alternative strategy toward disease treatment.

Expression of matrix metalloproteinases and tissue inhibitor of matrix metalloproteinases in the hair cycle

According to the growth state of hair follicles, the hair cycle is divided into the anagen, catagen and telogen phases. A number of biological factors have been shown to synchronize with the hair cycle. As an important component of the hair follicle, the extracellular matrix is regulated by matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and their inhibitors (tissue inhibitor of matrix metalloproteinases; TIMPs). It has been reported that MMP-2, MMP-9 and TIMP-1 are associated with the hair cycle; however, their expression levels during the hair cycle have not been fully elucidated. Reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction and ELISA analysis in the present study demonstrated that, during the hair cycle in mice, mRNA and protein expression levels of MMP-2 and MMP-9 were elevated in the anagen phase, and decreased during the catagen and telogen phases. Furthermore, SDS-PAGE gelatin zymography demonstrated that their activities fluctuated in the hair cycle. Additionally, it was observed that the mRNA and protein expression levels of TIMP-1 and TIMP-2 were negatively correlated with MMP-9 and MMP-2, respectively. Immunohistochemical examination demonstrated that MMP-2 and TIMP-2 were present in all structures of the hair follicle. However, MMP-9 and TIMP-1 were locally expressed in certain areas of the hair follicle, such as in the sebaceous gland at the anagen, catagen and telogen phases, and in the inner root sheath at the catagen phase. These results suggested that MMP-2 and MMP-9 may serve an important role in the hair growth cycle.

The effect of erythropoietin on anastomotic healing of irradiated rats

AIM

The aim of the present study is to evaluate the possible protective effects of erythropoietin (EPO) on anastomotic wound healing after preoperative radiotherapy according to its pleiotropic mechanism of action.

METHODS

Thirty-two male Wistar albino rats were randomized into four groups containing eight rats each: ANAS group, standard resection plus anastomosis; RT+ANAS group, radiation plus standard resection plus anastomosis; ANAS+EPO group, standard resection plus anastomosis plus EPO; RT+ANAS+EPO, radiation plus standard resection plus anastomosis plus EPO. All animals were sacrificed by cardiac puncture, and anastomotic healing was measured by bursting pressure, hydroxyproline (OHP) levels, myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity and histopathological evaluations. Malondialdehyde (MDA), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), and matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) were also measured in serum specimens.

RESULTS

OHP levels in the RT+ANAS + EPO group were significantly increased compared with other groups (p < .05). In contrast, MPO activity in the RT+ANAS+EPO group was significantly decreased compared with other groups (p < .05). Serum MDA levels were found to be decreased in the ANAS+EPO and RT+ANAS+EPO groups (p < .05). Group comparisons demonstrated that bursting pressure was significantly higher in EPO treated rats (p < .05). The histopathology results revealed that EPO treatment improves anastomotic wound healing though decreased necrosis and inflammatory cell infiltration and increased fibroblast activity.

CONCLUSION

The findings of the present study indicate that EPO contributes to wound healing and the strength of colon anastomosis following radiation due to its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects, but further studies are needed to explore the significance of these effects.

Matrix metalloproteinase-9 gene knock-out protects the immature brain after cerebral hypoxia-ischemia

Inhibition of matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) protects the adult brain after cerebral ischemia. However, the role of MMP-9 in the immature brain after hypoxia-ischemia (HI) is unknown. We exposed MMP-9(-/-) [MMP-9 knock-out (KO)] and wild-type (WT) mice to HI on postnatal day 9. HI was induced by unilateral ligation of the left carotid artery followed by hypoxia (10% O2; 36 degrees C). Gelatin zymography showed that MMP-9 activity was transiently increased at 24 h after HI in the ipsilateral hemisphere and MMP-9-positive cells were colocalized with activated microglia. Seven days after 50 min of HI, cerebral tissue volume loss was reduced in MMP-9 KO (21.8 +/- 1.7 mm3; n = 22) compared with WT (32.3 +/- 2.1 mm3; n = 22; p < 0.001) pups, and loss of white-matter components was reduced in MMP-9 KO compared with WT pups (neurofilament: WT, 50.9 +/- 5.4%; KO, 18.4 +/- 3.1%; p < 0.0001; myelin basic protein: WT, 57.5 +/- 5.8%; KO, 23.2 +/- 3.5%; p = 0.0001). The neuropathological changes were associated with a delayed and diminished leakage of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and a decrease in inflammation in MMP-9-deficient animals. In contrast, the neuroprotective effects after HI in MMP-9-deficient animals were not linked to either caspase-dependent (caspase-3 and cytochrome c) or caspase-independent (apoptosis-inducing factor) processes. This study demonstrates that excessive activation of MMP-9 is deleterious to the immature brain, which is associated with the degree of BBB leakage and inflammation. In contrast, apoptosis does not appear to be a major contributing factor.

Significance of 32-kDa Cathepsin L Secreted from Cancer Cells

It is recognized that many cancer cells secrete cathepsin L to degrade the components of extracellular matrices and basement membranes, thus promoting tumor invasion and metastasis. However, very little information is available concerning the secreted forms of cathepsin L and their possible role in human cancer. We initially demonstrated that approximately 10-fold higher mature cathepsin L activity was secreted in a medium of human fibrosarcoma (HT 1080) cells, compared with their intracellular activity. A 32-kDa major-activity band, together with a 41-kDa faint-activity band, was detected in the medium by our newly developed gelatin zymography. The two forms were further confirmed to be cathepsin L by immunoblot analysis. Both were apparently secreted directly from the cells, as neither was affected when the cells were cultured in the presence of various kinds of proteinase inhibitors. Human tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) stimulated not only the production of the 32-kDa cathepsin L, but also its secretion. Moreover, the 32-kDa cathepsin L activities in 3 colon and 2 lung cancer tissues were significantly higher than in normal tissues. Based on the foregoing, there are good reasons to speculate that the 32-kDa cathepsin L found in HT 1080 cell medium is involved in cancer invasion and metastasis.

Antiproliferative and Antiproteolytic activity of Pentoxifylline in cultures of B16F10 Melanoma cells

PURPOSE

Pentoxifylline (PTX), a methyl xanthine derivative is widely used as a haemorheological agent in the treatment of peripheral vascular disease. In the present study, we investigated the in vitro effects of PTX on B16F10 melanoma cell proliferation, adhesion and secretion of Matrix metalloproteinases.

METHODS

The toxic range of PTX was evaluated using MTT test and colony formation assay. The cell cycle study of PTX treated cells was carried out using flow cytometric analysis. Adhesion assay of pretreated melanoma cells was carried out on extracellular matrix (ECM) substrates. The relative levels and activity of matrix metalloprotienase-9 (MMP-9) and MMP-2 were determined by gelatin zymography and western blotting.

RESULTS

Pentoxifylline significantly inhibited the in vitro proliferation of B16F10 cells in a concentration dependent manner and displayed an IC(50) of 15.2 mM. Non-cytotoxic concentration of 1-3 mM of PTX for an exposure of 24 h demonstrated significant changes in cell morphology. A significant inhibition in G1-S phase transition was observed on PTX treatment. Pretreated F10 cells showed inhibition in adhesion to ECM components and markedly inhibited the secretion of MMP-9 and MMP-2 gelatinases.

CONCLUSION

The results suggest that PTX even at non-toxic pharmacological concentrations acts as an effective antiproliferative agent with significant antiproteolytic and antiadhesive effects.

Transcriptional induction of matrix metalloproteinase-9 in the chondrocyte and synoviocyte cells is regulated via a novel mechanism: evidence for functional cooperation between serum amyloid A-activating factor-1 and AP-1

Increased expression of matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) by IL-1beta and TNF-alpha is regarded as a key factor in the degradation of cartilage during arthritis. However, the underlying molecular mechanism of this induction process especially in the cells of the joint capsule remains elusive. Chondrocytes and synoviocytes, the resident cells of joint capsule, markedly increase transcription of MMP-9 in response to IL-1beta- and TNF-alpha-mediated stimulation. Using progressively deleted and mutant promoter constructs of MMP-9, we show that serum amyloid A-activating factor (SAF)-1, a novel transcription factor, and the AP-1 family of proteins cooperatively regulate cytokine-mediated induction of MMP-9 in the resident cells of the joint capsule. In the MMP-9 promoter, SAF-1 and AP-1 DNA-binding elements are present in close proximity with only 14 nucleotides apart. SAF-1 DNA-binding activity is increased in both cytokine-stimulated cells as well as in osteoarthritic cartilage tissues. Although overexpression of SAF-1 could increase expression of the MMP-9 promoter and endogenous MMP-9 gelatinolytic activity, for maximal induction of MMP-9 gene concurrent participation of SAF-1 and AP-1 is required. Mutation of either one of these two elements resulted in a severe reduction in cytokine responsiveness of MMP-9 promoter and compromised the transactivation potential of both SAF-1 and AP-1. Simultaneous requirement for two distinct DNA-binding elements suggests that SAF-1 and AP-1 function in a mutually beneficial manner acting as essential coactivators to drive cytokine-mediated transcriptional activation of MMP-9.

Effect of ketoprofen in topical formulation on vascular endothelial growth factor expression and tumor growth in nude mice with osteosarcoma

OST cells, a low metastatic cell line established from human osteosarcoma, were inoculated under the periosteum of the ossa cranii of nude mice. Four weeks later, tumors were percutaneously treated for an additional 4 weeks with a patch containing either placebo or ketoprofen (KP). In the placebo group, OST cells formed osteoid and invaded the cranial bone. Tumor mass weighed 3.54 g. Approximately 85% of cells within the tumor expressed proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA), indicating that they were proliferating with a high mitotic activity. Many feeder vessels were located within the tumor. The majority of tumor cells expressed intensely vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). In the KP group, invasion of OST cells into the cranial bone was suppressed and the tumor mass was 47% of that of the placebo group. Approximately 65% of cells within the tumor were PCNA-negative, indicating that their growth was arrested. There were considerably fewer feeder vessels within the tumor in the KP group than in the placebo group. Only a small number of cells expressed VEGF. Based on these findings, we concluded that topical administration of KP to nude mice with osteosarcoma inhibited VEGF expression, reduced the development of feeder vessels for supply of nutrients and oxygen, and suppressed tumor growth.

Intrathecal levels of matrix metalloproteinases in systemic lupus erythematosus with central nervous system engagement

Symptoms originating from the central nervous system (CNS) occur frequently in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), and CNS involvement in lupus is associated with increased morbidity and mortality. We recently showed that neurones and astrocytes are continuously damaged during the course of CNS lupus. The matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are a group of tissue degrading enzymes that may be involved in this ongoing brain destruction. The aim of this study was to examine endogenous levels of free, enzymatically active MMP-2 and MMP-9 in cerebrospinal fluid from patients with SLE. A total of 123 patients with SLE were evaluated clinically, with magnetic resonance imaging of brain and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) analyses. Levels of free MMP-2 and MMP-9 were determined in CSF using an enzymatic activity assay. CSF samples from another 22 cerebrally healthy individuals were used as a control. Intrathecal MMP-9 levels were significantly increased in patients with neuropsychiatric SLE as compared with SLE patients without CNS involvement (P < 0.05) and healthy control individuals (P = 0.0012). Interestingly, significant correlations between MMP-9 and intrathecal levels of neuronal and glial degradation products were noted, indicating ongoing intrathecal degeneration in the brains of lupus patients expressing MMP-9. In addition, intrathecal levels of IL-6 and IL-8--two cytokines that are known to upregulate MMP-9--both exhibited significant correlation with MMP-9 levels in CSF (P < 0.0001), suggesting a potential MMP-9 activation pathway. Our findings suggest that proinflammatory cytokine induced MMP-9 production leads to brain damage in patients with CNS lupus.

ERK1/2 mediates TNF-?-induced matrix metalloproteinase-9 expression in human vascular smooth muscle cells via the regulation of NF-?B and AP-1: Involvement of the ras dependent pathway

The expression of matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) has been implicated in progression of atherosclerotic lesions. The role and importance of the signaling pathway in the transcriptional regulation of MMP-9 in human aortic smooth muscle cells (HASMC) was examined. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) stimulated the secretion of MMP-9 in HASMC, as shown by zymography and immunoblot analysis. At the transcriptional levels, TNF-alpha also stimulated the 5'-flanking 710-bp promoter activity of MMP-9. Transcription factors NF-kappaB binding site (-601) and AP-1 binding site (-82) were identified as the cis-elements for TNF-alpha activation, as determined by gel shift assay and mutation analysis. Treatment with U0126, an inhibitor of the extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), significantly downregulated TNF-alpha-induced MMP-9 expression and promoter activity, whereas the inactive analog U0124 had no effect. Furthermore, the transactivation of TNF-alpha-stimulated NF-kappaB and AP-1 was inhibited by U0126 treatment. Finally, the transient transfection of HASMC with dominant negative Ras (RasN17) suppressed TNF-alpha-induced ERK activity, MMP-9 production, and promoter activity. Overexpression of RasN17 also abolished the TNF-alpha-stimulated NF-kappaB and AP-1 activity. In conclusion, the findings herein indicate the activation of the Ras/ERK pathway contributes to the induction of MMP-9 expression in HASMC. In addition, the transcription factors NF-kappaB and AP-1 that are involved in the Ras/ERK-mediated control of MMP-9 regulation on HASMC in response to TNF-alpha have now been identified.

Suppression of tumor necrosis factor alpha-induced matrix metalloproteinase 9 production in human salivary gland acinar cells by cepharanthine occurs via down-regulation of nuclear factor kappaB: a possible therapeutic agent for preventing the destruction of the acinar structure in the salivary glands of Sjögren's syndrome patients

OBJECTIVE

Our previous results suggested that suppression of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFalpha)-induced matrix metalloproteinase 9 (MMP-9) could prevent the destruction of acinar tissue in the salivary glands of patients with Sjögren's syndrome (SS). The present study was undertaken to investigate the effect of cepharanthine on the suppression of TNFalpha-induced MMP-9 production in NS-SV-AC, an SV40-immortalized normal human acinar cell clone.

METHODS

After pretreatment with or without cepharanthine, NS-SV-AC cells were treated with TNFalpha alone or with a combination of TNFalpha and cepharanthine. The expression of MMP-9 was then examined at the protein and messenger RNA levels. In addition, the effect of cepharanthine on the morphogenetic behavior of NS-SV-AC cells cultured on type IV collagen-coated dishes in the presence of TNFalpha was examined.

RESULTS

Although TNFalpha induced the production of MMP-9 in NS-SV-AC cells, this production was greatly suppressed when cells were pretreated with cepharanthine, followed by treatment with both TNFalpha and cepharanthine. In addition, cepharanthine suppressed the TNFalpha-stimulated NF-kappaB activity by partly preventing the degradation of IkappaBalpha protein in NS-SV-AC cells. When NS-SV-AC cells were seeded on type IV collagen-coated dishes in the presence of both TNFalpha and plasmin, type IV collagen interaction with the cells was lost and the cells entered apoptosis. However, pretreatment with cepharanthine restored the aberrant in vitro morphogenesis of the NS-SV-AC cells.

CONCLUSION

These results may indicate a molecular mechanism by which cepharanthine is able to protect against the destruction of the acinar structure in salivary glands from patients with SS.

Matrix metalloproteinase inhibitors: do they have a place in anticancer therapy?

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are a family of enzymes involved in degradation of extracellular matrix. An imbalance between MMPs and naturally occurring MMP inhibitors may cause excess extracellular matrix destruction, allowing cancer cells to invade surrounding tissues and metastasize, and permitting angiogenesis to occur. Inhibition of certain key MMPs may prevent angiogenesis, tumor growth, invasion, and metastasis. Gelatinases MMP-2 and MMP-9 are expressed during carcinogenesis and angiogenesis. Synthetic MMP inhibitors were designed to target these enzymes and potentially prevent the tumor growth and metastases associated with cancer.

Stimulation of matrix metalloproteinase-9 expression in human fibrosarcoma cells by synthetic matrix metalloproteinase inhibitors

Enhanced expression and activation of matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2) and MMP-9 have been associated with tumor progression, invasion, and metastasis. The use of synthetic MMP inhibitors to block the proteolytic activity of these enzymes recently emerged as a potential therapeutic tool to treat cancer. In this study, we report that GI129471, a synthetic broad-spectrum MMP inhibitor, efficiently reduced the in vitro invasiveness of HT1080 cells through type IV collagen, a major component of basement membranes. This reduced invasion was paralleled by a complete inhibition of pro-MMP-2 activation; however, GI129471 strongly increased the amount of secreted pro-MMP-9, which could be subsequently activated through a plasminogen-dependent mechanism. Quantitative RT-PCR and northern blot analysis revealed that GI129471 specifically increased the MMP-9 mRNA steady-state level. Moreover, transient transfection of HT1080 cells with beta-galactosidase reporter vectors containing different lengths of the 5'-flanking region of the MMP-9 gene revealed an upregulation of the transcriptional activity of the corresponding promoter. Well-known modulators of MMP-9 expression such as Il-1beta and TNF-alpha were not involved in this upregulation. These findings emphasize the complexity of the regulation of MMP expression and the requirement for a detailed characterization of the potential adverse side effects associated with the use of broad-spectrum MMPIs.

Significance of epidermal growth factor receptor and tumor associated tissue eosinophilia in the prognosis of patients with nasopharyngeal carcinoma

OBJECTIVE

The expression of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) is one of the indicators, which can predict the malignant potential of squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck (HNSCC). On the other hand, previous histological studies have proved tumor-associated tissue eosinophilia (TATE) to be a favorable prognostic indicator for HNSCC. We studied the prognostic significance of co-expression of EGFR and TATE.

METHODS

We examined the expression of EGFR and TATE in 53 patients with nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC). Biopsy specimens were subjected to immunohistochemical-staining for EGFR expression and Luna-staining for TATE. EGFR staining was considered negative when immuno-stained cells were less than 25% in a field. TATE was divided into four grades as grade 0 for 0-2 eosinophils in a high power field, grade 1 for 3-9, grade 2 for 10-29, and grade 3 for 30 or more.

RESULTS

In terms of TATE expression, 27 patients were classified as grade 0, 12 as grade 1, six as grade 2, and eight as grade 3. Forty-four patients were EGFR positive and nine were negative. We found no statistical significance in the distribution of EGFR positivity and TATE grades. Among EGFR-positive patients, 5 year survival rates were significantly better in TATE-positive (grades 1, 2, 3) patients than in TATE-negative (grade 0) patients (P=0.0139).

CONCLUSION

Eosinophils may be activated in the tumor tissue, in which the expression of EGFR is up-regulated. This suggests that the activated eosinophils in EGFR-positive tumors resulted in better prognoses. TATE infiltration and EGFR expression may be closely related to the malignant potential of NPC, and co-expression of TATE and EGFR may be an important prognostic factor.

Induction of MMP-9 in normal human bronchial epithelial cells by TNF-alpha via NF-kappa B-mediated pathway

In this study, we determined whether the proinflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha and interleukin-1 beta contribute to the regulation of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-9 in human bronchial epithelial cells and whether the induction of MMP-9 is regulated by the transcription factor nuclear factor (NF)-kappa B. We demonstrated that TNF-alpha induced MMP-9 at both the protein and mRNA levels in human bronchial epithelial cells and that interleukin-1 beta did not. In contrast, induction of the tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-1 by TNF-alpha was less than that of interleukin-1 beta. Increased expression of MMP-9 and NF-kappa B activation induced by TNF-alpha were inhibited by pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate and N-acetyl-L-cysteine but were not inhibited by curcumin. These results suggest that TNF-alpha induces the expression of MMP-9 in human bronchial epithelial cells and that this induction is mediated via the NF-kappa B-mediated pathway.

Transforming growth factor-beta - and tumor necrosis factor-alpha -mediated induction and proteolytic activation of MMP-9 in human skin

Both cytokines and matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are active during physiologic and pathologic processes such as cancer metastasis and wound repair. We have systematically studied cytokine-mediated MMP regulation. Cytokine-mediated proteinase induction and activation were initially investigated in organ-cultured human skin followed by determination of underlying cellular and molecular mechanisms using isolated skin cells. In this report we demonstrate that tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) and transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta) synergistically induce pro-MMP-9 in human skin as well as isolated dermal fibroblasts and epidermal keratinocytes. Furthermore, TNF-alpha promotes proteolytic activation of pro-MMP-9 by conversion of the 92-kDa pro-MMP-9 to the 82-kDa active enzyme. This activation occurred only in skin organ culture and not by either isolated fibroblasts or keratinocyte, although the pro-MMP-9 activation could be measured in a cell-free system derived from TNF-alpha-activated skin. The cytokine-mediated induction of pro-MMP-9 in dermal fibroblasts was evident by increased mRNA. At the transcription level, we examined the cytokine-mediated transactivation of the 5'-region promoter of the human MMP-9 in dermal fibroblasts. The results demonstrated that TNF-alpha and TGF-beta could independently stimulate the 5'-flanking 670-base pair promoter. A TGF-beta-response element (-474) and an NF-kappaB-binding site (-601) were identified to be the cis-elements for TGF-beta or TNF-alpha activation, respectively. Taken together, these findings suggest a specific mechanism whereby multiple cytokines can regulate MMP-9 expression/activation in the cells of human skin. These results imply roles for these cytokines in the regulation of MMP-9 in physiologic and pathologic tissue remodeling.

Antioxidants inhibit TNFalpha-induced motility and invasion of human osteosarcoma cells: possible involvement of NFkappaB activation

Osteosarcoma is the most frequent malignant bone tumor in children. It is highly invasive, however, the mechanisms behind osteosarcoma cell invasion are as yet still unknown. In the present study, treatment with TNFalpha enhanced the invasiveness of two human osteosarcoma cell lines, OST and MNNG. TNFalpha treatment also induced tumor cell motility, adhesion to laminin, the expression of matrix metalloproteinase 9 (MMP9), and the nuclear translocation of nuclear factor kappaB (NFkappaB) in the osteosarcoma cells. Moreover, antioxidants inhibited TNFalpha-induced osteosarcoma cell invasion, motility and NFkappaB nuclear translocation, but not adhesion to laminin or MMP9 expression. NFkappaB decoy, another NFkappaB inhibitor, also inhibited TNFalpha-induced osteosarcoma cell invasion and motility. Therefore, motility and NFkappaB activation were possibly related to TNFalpha-induced osteosarcoma cell invasion. However, adhesion to laminin or MMP did not demonstrate any correlation with TNFalpha-induced osteosarcoma cell invasion. Although NFkappaB is known to regulate TNFalpha-induced phenotypes, it may influence only motility and invasion, but not the MMP or laminin-mediated adhesion of these osteosarcoma cells.

Regulation of dihydropyrimidine dehydrogenase and pyrimidine nucleoside phosphorylase activities by growth factors and subsequent effects on 5-fluorouracil sensitivity in tumor cells

Dihydropyrimidine dehydrogenase (DPD) and pyrimidine nucleoside phosphorylase (PyNPase) are the first and rate-limiting enzymes that regulate 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) metabolism, and tumoral DPD activity appears to be a promising predictor of 5-FU sensitivity. However, the regulatory mechanisms determining these enzyme activities have not been fully understood. We investigated the biological effects of epidermal growth factor (EGF) and transforming growth factor (TGF)-alpha on cell growth and tumoral DPD and PyNPase activities, and the subsequent effects on 5-FU sensitivity in uterine cervical carcinoma SKG-IIIb cells. The treatment of tumor cells with EGF or TGF-alpha resulted in a concentration-dependent increase in tumor cell growth and PyNPase activity, whereas tumoral DPD activity was inhibited. Their stimulatory effects on tumor cell growth correlated well with PyNPase activity, but were inversely related to DPD activity (P < 0.01). 5-FU sensitivity of tumor cells increased in the presence of EGF or TGF-alpha. These growth factors were shown to stimulate the first, rate-limiting enzyme activity in 5-FU anabolism and to inhibit that in 5-FU catabolism, leading to enhancement of the antiproliferative action of 5-FU at achievable therapeutic levels. The tumor environmental factors, EGF and TGF-alpha, may act as intrinsic regulators of DPD and PyNPase activities that affect the 5-FU sensitivity of individual tumors.

Effects of tumor necrosis factor-alpha and interferon-gamma on expressions of matrix metalloproteinase-2 and -9 in human bladder cancer cells

We have investigated the effects of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) and interferon (INF-gamma), the potent Bacillus Calmette-Guerin (BCG)-induced cytokines on the production of MMP-2, MMP-9, TIMP-1, TIMP-2 and MT1-MMP in high grade human bladder cancer cell lines, T-24, J-82 and HT-1376 cell lines. MMP-2 expression and activity were decreased in T-24 cells treated with both cytokines in a dose dependent manner. However, J-82 cells treated with TNF-alpha and INF-gamma revealed dose dependent increases of MMP-9 expression and activity with similar baseline expression and activity of MMP-2. HT-1376 cells after exposure to TNF-alpha only enhanced the expression and activity of MMP-9. These results indicate that TNF-alpha and INF-gamma could regulate the production of MMP-2 or MMP-9 on bladder cancer cells and their patterns of regulation are cell specific. Furthermore, this diverse response of bladder cancer cells to TNF-alpha and INF-gamma suggests that BCG immunotherapy may enhance the invasiveness of bladder cancer in certain conditions with induction of MMPs.

Functional significance of MMP-9 in tumor necrosis factor-induced proliferation and branching morphogenesis of mammary epithelial cells

Tissue remodeling is a key process involved in normal mammary gland development, with matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) playing an important role in this process. Our laboratory has demonstrated that tumor necrosis factor (TNF) stimulates branching morphogenesis of mammary epithelial cells (MEC) within a reconstituted basement membrane. Studies were therefore undertaken to determine whether MMPs might mediate the effects of TNF. Using a primary culture model in which rat MEC grow three-dimensionally within a reconstituted basement membrane, we found that TNF stimulated secretion of MMP-9 but not MMP-2. To determine whether MMP-9 was involved in TNF-induced proliferation and branching morphogenesis, we used a peptide containing the prodomain sequence of MMPs and two MMP inhibitors. Both the prodomain peptide (5 x 10(-4)-10(-3) M), as well as BB-94 (10(-8)-10(-5) M) and CGS 27023A (10(-6)-10(-5) M), inhibited TNF-induced proliferation and branching morphogenesis in a concentration-dependent manner. Finally, to verify the specific requirement for MMP-9, we demonstrated that an MMP-9 neutralizing antibody blocked TNF-induced proliferation and branching morphogenesis. Together, these data suggest that TNF-regulated MMP-9 may play a role in the controlled invasion of the fad pad that occurs during normal mammary gland development and that misregulation of MMP-9 may contribute to the invasiveness of breast cancer.

Suppression of tumor necrosis factor alpha-induced matrix metalloproteinase 9 production by the introduction of a super-repressor form of inhibitor of nuclear factor kappaBalpha complementary DNA into immortalized human salivary gland acinar cells. Prevention of the destruction of the acinar structure in Sjögren's syndrome salivary glands

OBJECTIVE

We have previously shown that specific enhancement in acinar cells of proteolytic activity induced by tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFalpha) may be responsible for the destruction of the acinar structure in the salivary glands of patients with Sjögren's syndrome. Because matrix metalloproteinase 9 (MMP-9) is regulated by nuclear factor kappaB (NF-kappaB), we investigated the effect of a super-repressor form of inhibitor of nuclear factor kappaBalpha (srIkappaBalpha) on the suppression of TNFalpha-induced MMP-9 production in acinar cells.

METHODS

Two srIkappaBalpha complementary DNA (cDNA)-transfected acinar cell clones (ACMT-6 and ACMT-7) and 1 empty vector-transfected cell clone (ACpRc-1) were established. After treatment of cell clones with TNFalpha, the expression of MMP-9 was examined. In addition, the effect of TNFalpha on cell growth and the morphogenetic behavior of cell clones cultured on type IV collagen-coated dishes were examined.

RESULTS

TNFalpha induced the production of MMP-9 in the ACpRc-1 cell clone, but greatly suppressed MMP-9 production in ACMT-6 and ACMT-7 clones. No apparent cytotoxic effect of TNFalpha treatment was observed in these cell clones. When ACpRc-1 cells were seeded on type IV collagen-coated dishes in the presence of both TNFalpha and plasmin, type IV collagen interaction with the cells was lost and the cells entered apoptosis. However, even when ACMT-6 and ACMT-7 cells were cultured under the same culture conditions as those for ACpRc-1, these cell clones attached to the substrate and grew consistently without showing apoptosis. Conclusion. These observations indicate that suppression of TNFalpha-induced MMP-9 production by the introduction of srIkappaBalpha cDNA corrected the aberrant in vitro morphogenesis of acinar cells grown on type IV collagen.

Growth Factors and Cytokines Upregulate Gelatinase Expression in Bone Marrow CD34+ Cells and Their Transmigration Through Reconstituted Basement Membrane

The mechanism(s) underlying the release of stem/progenitor cells from bone marrow into the circulation is poorly understood. We hypothesized that matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), especially gelatinases, which are believed to participate in the proteolysis of basement membranes and in the migration of leukocytes, may facilitate this process. First, we investigated whether CD34+stem/progenitor cells express gelatinases A (MMP-2) and/or B (MMP-9) and whether growth factors and cytokines (granulocyte colony-stimulating factor [G-CSF], granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor [GM-CSF], stem cell factor [SCF], macrophage colony-stimulating factor [M-CSF], interleukin-3 [IL-3], IL-6, IL-8, and tumor necrosis factor- [TNF-]) are able to modulate their expression. Next, we examined the transmigration of these stem/progenitor cells through reconstituted basement membrane (Matrigel) and its modulation by growth factors and cytokines. CD34+ cells were obtained from steady-state bone marrow and peripheral blood (from leukapheresis products collected either in steady-state hematopoiesis or after mobilization with G-CSF plus chemotherapy or G-CSF alone). We found that peripheral blood CD34+ cells, regardless of whether they were mobilized or not, strongly expressed both gelatinases (MMP-2 and MMP-9) in contrast to steady-state bone marrow CD34+ cells, which did not. However, all the growth factors and cytokines tested could induce MMP-2 and MMP-9 secretion by the latter cells. Moreover, the stimulatory effects of G-CSF and SCF on both MMP-2 and MMP-9 secretion were found to be significantly higher in CD34+ cells isolated from bone marrow than in those from peripheral blood. In addition TNF-, GM-CSF, and IL-6 increased the secretion of a partially active form of MMP-2. Basal transmigration of bone marrow CD34+ cells through Matrigel was lower than that of peripheral blood CD34+ cells (P &lt; .0001), but growth factors and cytokines increased it by 50% to 150%. Positive correlations were established between expression of gelatinases and CD34+cell migration (r &gt; .9). The stimulatory effect of G-CSF was significantly greater on the migration of CD34+ cells from bone marrow than on those from peripheral blood (P = .004). Moreover, CD34+ cell migration was reduced to approximately 50% by antibodies to MMP-2 and MMP-9, tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (rhTIMP-1 and -2), ando-phenanthroline. TNF-–induced gelatinase secretion and migration of CD34+ cells and of clonogenic progenitors (colony-forming unit–granulocyte-macrophage [CFU-GM], burst-forming unit-erythroid [BFU-E], colony-forming unit granulocyte, erythroid, monocyte, megakaryocyte [CFU-GEMM], and colony-forming unit-megakaryocyte [CFU-MK]) were dose-dependent. Therefore, this study demonstrated that CD34+ cells that are circulating in peripheral blood express both MMP-2 and MMP-9 and transmigrate through Matrigel. In contrast, CD34+ cells from steady-state bone marrow acquire similar properties after exposure to growth factors and cytokines, which upregulate expression of gelatinases and transmigration of these cells when they enter the bloodstream. Hence, we suggest that growth factors and cytokines induce release of stem/progenitor cells from bone marrow into peripheral blood during mobilization, as well as during steady-state hematopoiesis, by signaling through gelatinase pathways.

Expression of metalloproteinases endometrial stromal sarcoma: immunohistochemical study using image analysis

AIM

To investigate the expression of matrix metalloproteinases (MMP), a group of proteolytic enzymes with a central role in extracellular matrix invasion and degradation, in stromal sarcomas.

METHODS

11 endometrial stromal sarcomas (four low grade tumours, seven high grade) were stained for MMP-2, MMP-3, and MMP-9 using immunohistochemical stains. The surgical material consisted of nine hysterectomy specimens and two pelvic recurrences. Three hysterectomy specimens, removed for leiomyomas, were studied as controls. Staining area was evaluated using image analysis.

RESULTS

Age at the time of diagnosis ranged from 21 to 67 years. Four of the 11 patients (three with high grade tumours and one with a low grade tumour) died of the disease, six remained free of disease, and one was lost to follow up. Staining for MMP-2, MMP-3, and MMP-9 was more diffuse in high grade tumours than in low grade tumours and controls. Staining for MMP-3 and MMP-9 was more pronounced in high grade than in low grade tumours (p = 0.04; p = 0.05). Staining for MMP-9 was significantly greater in all stromal sarcomas than in controls (p < 0.001 for high grade tumours v controls; p < 0.01 for low grade tumours v controls). Diffuse staining for MMP-2, exceeding 90% of the tumour area, was observed in three of seven high grade tumours but in no low grade tumours. There was no apparent correlation between staining for any of the three enzymes and survival.

CONCLUSIONS

Both low and high grade endometrial stromal tumours express matrix metalloproteinases. MMP-3 and MMP-9 are expressed more diffusely in high grade than in low grade tumours. In the individual case, diffuse staining for MMP-2 appears to best characterise the high grade tumours. Thus staining for MMP-2 may aid in differentiating high grade from low grade tumours, and MMP-9 in differentiating normal endometrial stroma from low and high grade endometrial stromal sarcomas. MMP expression does not appear to predict disease outcome in endometrial stromal sarcoma.

Novel regulation of type IV collagenase (matrix metalloproteinase-9 and -2) activities by transforming growth factor-beta1 in human prostate cancer cell lines

The type IV collagenases/gelatinases matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2) and MMP-9 play a variety of important roles in both physiological and pathological processes and are regulated by various growth factors, including transforming growth factor-beta1 (TGF-beta1), in several cell types. Previous studies have suggested that cellular control of one or both collagenases can occur through direct transcriptional mechanisms and/or after secretion through proenzyme processing and interactions with metalloproteinase inhibitors. Using human prostate cancer cell lines, we have found that TGF-beta1 induces the MMP-9 proenzyme; however, this induction does not result from direct effects on gene transcription but, instead, through a protein synthesis-requiring process leading to increased MMP-9 mRNA stability. In addition, we have examined levels of TGF-beta1 regulation of MMP-2 in one prostate cancer cell line and found that TGF-beta1 induces higher secreted levels of this collagenase through increased stability of the secreted 72-kDa proenzyme. These results identify two novel nontranscriptional pathways for the cellular regulation of MMP-9 and MMP-2 collagenase gene expression and activities.

Effects of sex steroids and growth factors on invasive activity and 5'-deoxy-5-fluorouridine sensitivity in ovarian adenocarcinoma OMC-3 cells

Effects of sex steroids (estradiol-17 beta, E2; progesterone, Prog) and growth factors (epidermal growth factor, EGF; transforming growth factor-alpha, TGF-alpha) on invasive activity and 5'-deoxy-5-fluorouridine (5'-dFUrd) sensitivity of ovarian adenocarcinoma OMC-3 cells were investigated. Tumor cell migration along a gradient of substratum-bound fibronectin and invasion into reconstituted basement membrane were inhibited by 10 microM Prog, but stimulated by 0.1-10 nM EGF and TGF-alpha in a concentration-dependent manner. E2 did not have any effect on tumor cell migration or invasion. The zymography of tumor conditioned medium showed that the treatment of OMC-3 cells with EGF and TGF-alpha resulted in increases of type IV collagenase, stromelysin and urokinase-type plasminogen activator (uPA). EGF and TGF-alpha up-regulated thymidine phosphorylase (dThdPase) expression of tumor cells and consequently enhanced the antiproliferative action of 5'-dFUrd, which is converted to 5-fluorouracil by dThdPase. E2 and Prog did not have significant effects on the expression of proteolytic enzymes and dThdPase, or on the 5'-dFUrd sensitivity of tumor cells. The inhibitory effect of Prog on tumor cell invasion may depend on its inhibitory action on the motility of tumor cells. These results suggest that EGF and TGF-alpha simultaneously up-regulate the potential of ovarian adenocarcinoma cells to invade extracellular matrices and their dThdPase expression, both of which are associated with the specific action of 5'-dFUrd selectively to kill tumor cells with high invasive and metastatic potential.

Regulation of monocyte MMP-9 production by TNF-alpha and a tumour-derived soluble factor (MMPSF)

The matrix metalloprotease MMP-9 localizes to tumour-associated macrophages in human ovarian cancer but little is known of its regulation. Co-culture of human ovarian cancer cells (PEO-1) and a monocytic cell line (THP-1) led to production of 92-kDa proMMP-9. PEO-1-conditioned medium (CM) also stimulated THP-1 cells or isolated peripheral blood monocytes to produce proMMP-9. Expression of TIMP-1, however, remained unaffected. There was evidence that tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha) was involved in tumour-stimulated monocytic proMMP-9 production. Antibody to TNF-alpha inhibited proMMP-9 production, and synthesis of TNF-alpha mRNA and protein preceded proMMP-9 release. In addition, the synthetic matrix metalloprotease inhibitor (MMPI) BB-2116, which blocks TNF-alpha shedding, inhibited proMMP-9 release in the co-cultures and from CM-stimulated monocytic cells. Further experiments suggested that the stimulating factor present in CM was not TNF-alpha, but acted synergistically with autocrine monocyte-derived TNF-alpha to release monocytic proMMP-9. Thus, ovarian cancer cells can stimulate monocytic cells in vitro to make proMMP-9 without affecting the expression of its inhibitor TIMP-1. This induction is mediated via a soluble factor (provisionally named MMPSF) that requires synergistic action of autocrine or paracrine TNF-alpha.

Expression of metalloproteinases and their inhibitors in human trophoblast continuous cell lines

Trophoblasts cells which are derived from the outer layer of the blastocyst have developed mechanisms by which they can invade the uterus and tap into the maternal circulation. In contrast to tumor cell invasion trophoblast invasion is precisely regulated, being confined spatially to the uterus and temporally to early pregnancy. The invasive properties manifested by trophoblasts are made possible by the secretion of proteolytic enzymes which can degrade components of the extracellular matrix (ECM). A number of investigators have shown that the matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are important mediators of trophoblast invasion. The two type IV collagenases, MMP-2 and MMP-9, which specifically degrade type IV collagen and gelatins have been of particular interest in this respect. In this paper we examine the expression and regulation of MMPs and their inhibitors in a series of trophoblast continuous cell lines. These cell lines, ED27, ED31, ED77, and a choriocarcinoma cell line, BeWo, were initially characterized with respect to various properties, including cytokeratin, hCG, and hPL expression. We have looked at the expression of MMPs and their inhibitors in these cell lines and their in vitro invasive behavior. Using zymography and RT-PCR we show that the trophoblast cell lines produce both MMP-2 and MMP-9, while the BeWo produce only MMP-2. Using an in vitro invasion assay the trophoblast cell lines were shown to be capable of invading while the BeWo were unable to invade. These results suggest that expression of MMP-9 in these cells is crucial for invasion. We have also examined the regulation of MMP expression by cytokines and found that MMP-9 expression could be modulated by IL-1 beta in these cell lines. The data presented in this paper suggest that these trophoblast cell lines present an ideal model system to investigate the regulation of metalloproteinases in trophoblast invasion.

Imbalance of expression of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and tissue inhibitors of the matrix metalloproteinases (TIMPs) in human pancreatic carcinoma

Degradation of the extracellular matrix (ECM) is an essential step in tumour invasion and metastasis. The matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) each have different substrate specificities within the ECM and are important in its degradation. MMP activity is dependent on the levels of activated MMP and tissue inhibitors of matrix metalloproteinases (TIMPs). The expression of MMPs and TIMPs in pancreatic carcinoma, normal pancreas, and pancreatic carcinoma cell lines has been determined by Northern analysis. The transcripts have been localized by in situ hybridization and the MMP2 protein by immunohistochemistry. Expression of MMP2, -7, and -11 was greater in pancreatic carcinoma than in normal pancreas (P < 0.01). MMP7 expression in normal pancreas and MMP7 and -11 expression in tumours was always seen the TIMP1 expression. TIMP2 was expressed in only half of the tumours and a previously undescribed transcript size is reported for TIMP2. MTMMP was expressed concurrently with MMP2 in 64 per cent of tumours, but concurrent MMP2 and TIMP2 expression occurred in only half. MMP2 mRNA was found more often in the tumour stroma than with the other MMPs or TIMPs (P < 0.02). It is concluded that while overexpression of MMP7 and -11 may be countered by TIMP1, the aggressive phenotype of pancreatic carcinoma may occur because of overexpression of MMP2, activated by MTMMP and associated with a reduced expression of TIMP2.

The role of stromal cells in the expression of interstitial collagenase (matrix metalloproteinase-1) in the invasion of gastric cancer

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

In one of the steps of tumor invasion and metastasis, tumor cells must invade surrounding tissues and degrade the components of the basement membranes. Interstitial collagenase (matrix metalloproteinase-1: MMP-1) has been also investigated in relation to cancer invasion and metastasis.

METHODS

We investigated the formation and mechanism of MMP-1 expression using gastric cancer cell lines and gastric fibroblasts derived from normal gastric mucosa by ELISA and immunohistochemistry.

RESULTS

Production of MMP-1 protein in gastric fibroblasts was stimulated significantly by adding the conditioned medium of MKN-74. Localization of MMP-1 protein in the xenografted gastric cancer cell lines was heterogeneous according to different cell lines.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggested that the production of MMP-1 protein in tumor invasion was regulated by interaction between stromal cells, particularly fibroblasts, and tumor cells.

Modulation of human stromelysin 3 promoter activity and gene expression by human breast cancer cells

The matrix-degrading enzyme family of matrix-metalloproteinases (MMPs) has been implicated in the process of tumour metastasis. Cellular protein and RNA localisation techniques have been used to show that, whilst several MMP genes are expressed in both cancer and stromal cells, stromelysin 3 is expressed only in stromal fibroblasts adjacent to cancer cells. Immunohistochemical and in situ hybridisation evidence suggests that neoplastic cells can stimulate stromal cell MMP production either in a paracrine fashion or by a cell-cell contact mechanism. Using 2 different lengths of the human stromelysin 3 (ST3) gene 5' flanking sequence cloned upstream of luciferase and CAT reporter genes, we now show that human breast cancer cells can directly activate the ST3 promoter. The putative response element in the ST3 promoter, which lies between 0.46 and 3.4 kb upstream of the transcription start site, is able to effect a 2- to 3-fold increase in downstream gene expression. We further show that this transcriptional up-regulation definitely occurs via a paracrine, and possibly via a cell-cell contact, mechanism. Confirmation that this ST3 promoter activation results in ST3 gene induction of a similar magnitude was shown using Northern blotting of stimulated fibroblasts. Our data provide further evidence that cancer cells can induce fibroblast MMP expression and help to explain the in vivo expression pattern of ST3 in breast cancer.

Divergent regulation of 92-kDa gelatinase and TIMP-1 by HBECs in response to IL-1beta and TNF-alpha

In this study, we addressed the question of whether human bronchial epithelial cells (HBECs) contribute to the regulation of 92-kDa gelatinase activity by secreting tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase (TIMP)-1. We investigated expression of 92-kDa gelatinase and TIMP-1 in response to lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and to the proinflammatory cytokines interleukin (IL)-1beta and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha. Confluent HBECs from explants were cultured in plastic dishes coated with type I and III collagen. We demonstrated that TIMP-1 was expressed at both the protein and mRNA levels by primary cultures of HBECs. Gelatin zymography of HBEC-conditioned media showed that exposure of HBECs to LPS, IL-1beta, or TNF-alpha induced a twofold increase in the latent form of 92-kDa gelatinase production, as well as its activation. Also, quantitative reverse transcriptase (RT)-polymerase chain reaction (PCR) demonstrated a twofold increase in the 92-kDa mRNA level in response to both cytokines. In contrast, TIMP-1 production evaluated by immunoblotting was unchanged in the presence of LPS and IL-1beta and was clearly decreased in the presence of TNF-alpha. Quantitative RT-PCR demonstrated that TIMP-1 mRNA levels remained unchanged in response to LPS or IL-1beta but decreased by 70% in the presence of TNF-alpha. All of these results strongly suggest that the control mechanisms regulating the expression of 92-kDa gelatinase and TIMP-1 by HBECs in response to inflammatory stimuli are divergent and result in an imbalance between 92-kDa gelatinase and TIMP-1 in favor of the metalloproteinase. Such an imbalance may contribute significantly to acute airway inflammation.

Stimulatory effects of EGF and TGF-alpha on invasive activity and 5'-deoxy-5-fluorouridine sensitivity in uterine cervical-carcinoma SKG-IIIb cells

We investigated the effects of epidermal growth factor (EGF) and transforming growth factor (TGF)-alpha on migration, invasion and matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) expression of uterine cervical-carcinoma SKG-IIIb cells, and whether these growth factors affect pyrimidine-nucleoside-phosphorylase (PyNPase) activity and 5'-deoxy-5-fluorouridine (5'-dFUrd) sensitivity of tumor cells. Tumor-cell migration along a gradient of substratum-bound fibronectin and invasion into reconstituted basement membrane were stimulated by 0.1 to 100 ng/ml of EGF and TGF-alpha in a concentration-dependent manner. The zymography of tumor-conditioned medium showed that the treatment of tumor cells with EGF and TGF-alpha resulted in an increase of the 92-kDa type-IV collagenase (MMP-9), which was confirmed by immunoblot analysis. These growth factors also up-regulated the expression of PyNPase activity of tumor cells and consequently enhanced the anti-proliferative action of 5'-dFUrd, a cytostatic that is biotransformed to 5-fluorouracil (5-FUra) by PyNPase. However, EGF and TGF-alpha did not have significant effects on the 5-FUra sensitivity of tumor cells. These results suggest that EGF and TGF-alpha, tumor environmental factors, simultaneously up-regulate the potential of uterine cervical-carcinoma cells to invade extracellular matrices and their PyNPase activity, which are subsequently associated with the specific action of 5'-dFUrd selectively killing tumor cells of gynecological origin with high invasive and metastatic potential.

Imbalance of expression of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and tissue inhibitors of the matrix metalloproteinases (TIMPs) in human pancreatic carcinoma

Degradation of the extracellular matrix (ECM) is an essential step in tumour invasion and metastasis. The matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) each have different substrate specificities within the ECM and are important in its degradation. MMP activity is dependent on the levels of activated MMP and tissue inhibitors of matrix metalloproteinases (TIMPs). The expression of MMPs and TIMPs in pancreatic carcinoma, normal pancreas, and pancreatic carcinoma cell lines has been determined by Northern analysis. The transcripts have been localized by in situ hybridization and the MMP2 protein by immunohistochemistry. Expression of MMP2, -7, and -11 was greater in pancreatic carcinoma than in normal pancreas (P < 0.01). MMP7 expression in normal pancreas and MMP7 and -11 expression in tumours was always seen the TIMP1 expression. TIMP2 was expressed in only half of the tumours and a previously undescribed transcript size is reported for TIMP2. MTMMP was expressed concurrently with MMP2 in 64 per cent of tumours, but concurrent MMP2 and TIMP2 expression occurred in only half. MMP2 mRNA was found more often in the tumour stroma than with the other MMPs or TIMPs (P < 0.02). It is concluded that while overexpression of MMP7 and -11 may be countered by TIMP1, the aggressive phenotype of pancreatic carcinoma may occur because of overexpression of MMP2, activated by MTMMP and associated with a reduced expression of TIMP2.

Expression of matrix metalloproteinase (gelatinase) in T1 adenocarcinoma of the lung

The expression of matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2; 72 kDa type IV collagenase/gelatinase A) and MMP-9 (92 kDa type IV collagenase/gelatinase B) was immunohistochemically investigated in 79 T1 adenocarcinomas of the lung using non-commercial polyclonal anti-MMP-2 and -9 antibodies. Thirty-two (41%) and 22 (28%) among the 79 cases were positive in the tumor cells for MMP-2 and -9, respectively. The incidences of MMP-2 and -9 immunoreactivities were higher (64 and 45%, respectively) in poorly differentiated tumors than in well differentiated tumors (36 and 25%, respectively), and lower in bronchioloalveolar carcinoma (22 and 10%, respectively) compared with other subtypes of adenocarcinoma. The prognosis for patients with MMP-2 and/or -9 positive immunoreactivities was significantly poorer than for those with a MMP-negative tumor (P < 0.05). The degree of collagenization was divided into four grades, and tumors with a small to abundant amount of collagen (grade 2 and grade 3 fibrosis) had a higher incidence of immunoreactivity to both types of MMP. It is estimated that these expressions might be responsible for tumor invasion, metastasis, and for grade 2 and grade 3 fibrosis in T1 adenocarcinoma of the lung.

Tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases-1 (TIMP-1) is differentially induced in neurons and astrocytes after seizures: evidence for developmental, immediate early gene, and lesion response

We investigated in vivo the expression of the tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases-1 (TIMP-1) in the rat CNS after kainate (KA)-induced excitotoxic seizures. In situ hybridization revealed that TIMP-1 mRNA is induced rapidly and massively in most regions of the adult forebrain after KA treatment. Neuronal activity seems to be necessary but not sufficient to trigger TIMP-1 induction, because it is not observed in seizing 10-d-old pups, unlike what is observed in 21- and 35-d-old animals after seizures. The rapid induction of TIMP-1 is not prevented by the inhibitor of protein synthesis cycloheximide, suggesting that, after seizures, TIMP-1 is induced in neurons as an immediate early gene (IEG). The initial neuronal upregulation is followed by enhanced expression in astrocytes, as assessed by double-labeling experiments. In the hippocampus rapid increases in mRNA are followed by relatively delayed (8 hr after KA) increases in TIMP-1 immunoreactivity in the perisomatic and dendro-axonic areas, suggesting secretion of the protein. At 3 d after KA treatment, strong immunoreactivity is found in astrocytes and in the cell bodies and dendro-axonic projections of resistant neurons such as the dentate granule cells. Taken together, the results suggest that TIMP-1 may be instrumental for neurons and astrocytes in coupling early cellular events triggered by seizures with the regulation of long-lasting changes involved in tissue reorganization and/or neuroprotection.

Expression of gelatinases within the trabecular bone compartment of ovariectomized and parathyroidectomized adult female rats

Ovariectomized (ovx) and parathyroidectomized (ptx) rat models of disturbed bone metabolism have been widely used in evaluating bone changes resulting from hormonal depletion, and are characterized by elevated and depressed bone turnover, respectively. We report here the expression of gelatinases extracted from native trabecular bone in these models. Nine-month-old female Sprague-Dawley rats were sacrificed after 3 weeks following ovx or 10 days post ptx to determine the influence of these procedures on the levels of proximal tibial bone tissue gelatinases. Identification and quantitation of these enzymes were performed via gelatin gel zymography of native tissue extracts and laser densitometry of developed gels, respectively. In the ptx model, a reduction in tissue levels of pro- and active-MMP-2 and a 45 kDa activated fragment was seen, whereas ovx exhibited significant increases in these enzymes. The MMPs are therefore clearly under the influence of factors known to modulate bone remodeling in vivo. The study of MMP levels directly extracted from bone using these experimental models may assist in developing management regimes for metabolic bone diseases through the use of drugs aimed at controlling turnover.

Expression of interstitial collagenase (matrix metalloproteinase-1) in gastric cancers

The expression of matrix metalloproteinase-1 (MMP-1) gene and the presence of MMP-1 protein in gastric cancer were examined by in situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry. Expression of the interstitial collagenase (MMP-1) gene was detected within the stroma of the neoplastic glands, and infiltration of eosinophils was observed to be associated with regions of MMP-1 gene expression. The degree of eosinophilic infiltration correlated with the level of MMP-1 mRNA expression. Immunostaining showed localization of MMP-1 protein in the stromal cells, and additionally in the neoplastic glands. These findings indicate that the stromal cells may play an important role in the expression of MMP-1, and suggest a pathophysiological role for MMP-1 in the invasion and metastasis of gastric cancer.

Langerhans' cells produce type IV collagenase (MMP-9) following epicutaneous stimulation with haptens

For initiation of the contact hypersensitivity response, epidermal Langerhans' cells (LC) migrate from the epidermis to draining nodes via afferent lymphatics by passing through the basement membrane. In this study, we examined production of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) in LC-enriched epidermal cells to clarify the type of enzymes involved in LC transmigration through the basement membrane. Using gelatine enzymography and immunoblotting analysis, 95,000 MW type IV collagenase (MMP-9) was found to be produced by LC-enriched epidermal cells. Analysis of the kinetics of MMP-9 expression showed that its production was induced within 6 hr after application of 2,4,6-trinitrochlorobenzene (TNCB), substantially increased between 12 hr and 24 hr, and then decreased to the normal level by 7 to 10 days. Other haptens, such as 2,4-dinitrochlorobenzene and 2,4-dinitrofluorobenzene, also induced MMP-9 expression. Fluoroescence-activated cell sorter analysis revealed that LC were one of the major cell types to express MMP-9 in response to TNCB. In addition, highly enriched LC from sensitized skin were shown to express strong gelatinolytic activity. These results indicate that LC by themselves, as well as other epidermal cells, are capable of producing MMP-9, and suggest that MMP-9 may contribute to proteolysis associated with transmigration of LC in the induction phase of contact dermatitis.

Matrix metalloproteinases

BACKGROUND

The matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) have a role in gastrointestinal malignancy. This role is reviewed, with particular reference to the gelatinase subgroup of enzymes.

METHODS

All relevant papers derived from the Medline and Enbase databases between 1984 and early 1996 were reviewed.

RESULT AND CONCLUSION

There is now strong evidence that MMPs play a major role in tumour invasion and metastasis. The development of MMP inhibitors may lead to important new treatment for the control of malignant disease.

Bacillus Calmette-Guérin enhances production and secretion of type IV collagenases in peripheral blood mononuclear cells

Intravesical administration of bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) is an effective and widely accepted treatment for superficial bladder cancer. Rapid progression of the disease after BCG therapy, however, has been reported in some cases refractory to the treatment. We examined whether BCG treatment and coexistence of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) alter the invasive potential of bladder cancer cells. Production and secretion of two type IV collagenases, matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) 2 and MMP 9, by PBMCs from five healthy donors or bladder cancer cells (T24, JTC 30, and JTC 32) were evaluated by gelatin zymography, western blot analysis, and northern blot analysis. Invasion of bladder cancer cells was also examined using reconstituted basement membrane (Matrigel). BCG (5, 50, and 500 micrograms/ml) had no effect on secretion of MMP 2 and MMP 9 by bladder cancer cells, but increased the production and secretion of MMP 9 by PBMCs in a dose-dependent manner. The coexistence of PBMCs increased invasion of T24 cells and BCG further enhanced the invasion. Thus, BCG promotes invasion of bladder cancer cells under certain conditions. An increase in the secretion of MMP 9 by PBMCs may account in part for the effect.