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Tsouloufi TK. An overview of mycotoxicoses in rabbits. J Vet Diagn Invest 2024; 36:638-654. [PMID: 38804173 PMCID: PMC11457744 DOI: 10.1177/10406387241255945] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2024] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxicoses are usually a consideration in large animal species but can affect companion animals as well. Due to increasing interest and the ease of using rabbits as laboratory models, a growing number of published experimental studies discuss the effects of various mycotoxins on this species. However, the available evidence is fragmented and heterogeneous, and has not recently been collated in a review, to my knowledge. Although mycotoxicoses in rabbits are typically subclinical, clinical signs can include weight loss, anorexia, gastrointestinal disorders, stunted growth, reproductive abnormalities, and susceptibility to infections. An antemortem diagnosis typically relies on a comprehensive clinical history, and assessment of clinical signs and relevant laboratory findings, with confirmation of exposure achieved through the measurement of mycotoxin concentrations in feed or target organs. My review focuses on the clinicopathologic and histopathologic effects of the mycotoxins most important in rabbits, including fumonisins, ochratoxins, aflatoxins, trichothecenes, and zearalenone. This review offers a thorough overview of the effects of mycotoxins in rabbits, serving as a one-stop resource for veterinary practitioners, diagnosticians, and researchers.
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Sajid M, Mehmood S, Yuan Y, Yue T. Mycotoxin patulin in food matrices: occurrence and its biological degradation strategies. Drug Metab Rev 2019; 51:105-120. [PMID: 30857445 DOI: 10.1080/03602532.2019.1589493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Patulin is a mycotoxin produced by a number of filamentous fungal species. It is a polyketide secondary metabolite which can gravely cause human health problems and food safety issues. This review deals with the occurrence of patulin in major food commodities from 2008 to date, including historical aspects, source, occurrence, regulatory limits and its toxicity. Most importantly, an overview of the recent research progress about the biodegradation strategies for contaminated food matrices is provided. The physical and chemical approaches have some drawbacks such as safety issues, possible losses in the nutritional quality, chemical hazards, limited efficacy, and high cost. The biological decontamination based on elimination or degradation of patulin using yeast, bacteria, and fungi has shown good results and it seems to be attractive since it works under mild and environment-friendly conditions. Further studies are needed to make clear the detoxification pathways by available potential biosorbents and to determine the practical applications of these methods at a commercial level to remove patulin from food products with special reference to their effects on sensory characteristics of foods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina Sajid
- a College of Food Science and Engineering , Northwest A&F University , Yangling , China.,b Laboratory of Quality & Safety Risk Assessment for Agro Products (Yangling), Ministry of Agriculture , Yangling , China.,c National Engineering Research Center of Agriculture Integration Test (Yangling) , Yangling , China
| | - Sajid Mehmood
- d State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology for Arid Areas, College of Plant Protection , Northwest A&F University , Yangling , China
| | - Yahong Yuan
- a College of Food Science and Engineering , Northwest A&F University , Yangling , China.,b Laboratory of Quality & Safety Risk Assessment for Agro Products (Yangling), Ministry of Agriculture , Yangling , China.,c National Engineering Research Center of Agriculture Integration Test (Yangling) , Yangling , China
| | - Tianli Yue
- a College of Food Science and Engineering , Northwest A&F University , Yangling , China.,b Laboratory of Quality & Safety Risk Assessment for Agro Products (Yangling), Ministry of Agriculture , Yangling , China.,c National Engineering Research Center of Agriculture Integration Test (Yangling) , Yangling , China
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Pal S, Singh N, Ansari KM. Toxicological effects of patulin mycotoxin on the mammalian system: an overview. Toxicol Res (Camb) 2017; 6:764-771. [PMID: 30090541 DOI: 10.1039/c7tx00138j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2017] [Accepted: 08/09/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The mycotoxin PAT (4-hydroxy-4H-furo[3,2c]pyran-2[6H]-one) is a secondary metabolic product of molds such as Penicillium, Aspergillus, and Byssochlamys species. PAT is a common contaminant of fruit and vegetable based products, most notably apples. Despite PAT's original discovery as an antibiotic, it has come under heavy scrutiny for its potential to impart negative health effects. Studies investigating these health effects have proved its toxic potential. PAT occurrence in the food commodities poses a serious threat and necessitates novel and cost-effective mitigation methods to remove it from food products. It also creates a demand to improve handling and food processing techniques. With this being the case, several studies have been devoted to understanding the key biological and chemical attributes of PAT. While past research has elucidated a great deal, PAT contamination continues to be a challenge for the food industry. Here, we review its influence within the mammalian system, including its regulation, incidences of experimental evidence of PAT toxicity, its interaction with intracellular components, and the effects of PAT induced systemic toxicity on vital organs. Finally, key areas where future PAT research should focus to best control the PAT contamination problem within the food industry have been addressed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saurabh Pal
- Environmental Carcinogenesis Laboratory , Food , Drug , and Chemical Toxicology Group CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research (CSIR-IITR) , Vishvigyan Bhawan , 31 , Mahatma Gandhi Marg , P.O. Box#80 , Lucknow-226001 , Uttar Pradesh , India . ; ; Tel: +91-522-2627586 ext. 543.,Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR) , CSIR-IITR , Lucknow Campus , India
| | - Neha Singh
- Environmental Carcinogenesis Laboratory , Food , Drug , and Chemical Toxicology Group CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research (CSIR-IITR) , Vishvigyan Bhawan , 31 , Mahatma Gandhi Marg , P.O. Box#80 , Lucknow-226001 , Uttar Pradesh , India . ; ; Tel: +91-522-2627586 ext. 543.,Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR) , CSIR-IITR , Lucknow Campus , India
| | - Kausar Mahmood Ansari
- Environmental Carcinogenesis Laboratory , Food , Drug , and Chemical Toxicology Group CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research (CSIR-IITR) , Vishvigyan Bhawan , 31 , Mahatma Gandhi Marg , P.O. Box#80 , Lucknow-226001 , Uttar Pradesh , India . ; ; Tel: +91-522-2627586 ext. 543
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Moake MM, Padilla-Zakour OI, Worobo RW. Comprehensive Review of Patulin Control Methods in Foods. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2005; 4:8-21. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1541-4337.2005.tb00068.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 292] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Mahfoud R, Maresca M, Garmy N, Fantini J. The mycotoxin patulin alters the barrier function of the intestinal epithelium: mechanism of action of the toxin and protective effects of glutathione. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2002; 181:209-18. [PMID: 12079430 DOI: 10.1006/taap.2002.9417] [Citation(s) in RCA: 134] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Patulin is a mycotoxin mainly found in apple and apple products. In addition to being toxic for animals, mutagenic, carcinogenic and teratogenic, patulin induces intestinal injuries, including epithelial cell degeneration, inflammation, ulceration, and hemorrhages. In a study of the cellular mechanisms associated with the intestinal toxicity of patulin, two human epithelial intestinal cell lines (HT-29-D4 and Caco-2-14) were exposed to the mycotoxin. Micromolar concentrations of patulin were found to induce a rapid and dramatic decrease of transepithelial resistance (TER) in both cell lines without major signs of toxicity as assessed by the LDH release assay. Since TER reflects the organization of tight junctions, these data indicate that patulin affected the barrier function of the intestinal epithelium. The inhibitory effect of patulin on TER was closely associated with its reactivity for SH groups: (i) cysteine and glutathione prevented the cells from patulin injury; (ii) patulin toxicity was potentiated by buthionine sulfoximine, a specific glutathione-depleting agent; (iii) treatment of the cells with N-ethylmaleimide, a compound known to react with SH groups, resulted in a marked decrease of TER. Moreover, the inhibitory effect of patulin on TER was mimicked and potentiated by phenylarsine oxide, a specific inhibitor of protein tyrosine phosphatase (PTP). This cellular enzyme is a key regulator of intestinal epithelial barrier function. The active site of PTP contains a cysteine residue (Cys215) that is essential for phosphatase activity. Sulfhydryl-reacting compounds such as acetaldehyde decrease TER through covalent modification of Cys215 of PTP. We propose that the toxicity of patulin for intestinal cells involves, among other potential mechanisms, an inactivation of the active site of PTP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Radhia Mahfoud
- Institut Méditerranéen de Recherche en Nutrition, UMR-INRA 1111, Faculté des Sciences de St Jérôme, 13397 Marseille Cedex 20, France
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Burghardt RC, Barhoumi R, Lewis EH, Bailey RH, Pyle KA, Clement BA, Phillips TD. Patulin-induced cellular toxicity: a vital fluorescence study. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 1992; 112:235-44. [PMID: 1539161 DOI: 10.1016/0041-008x(92)90193-v] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
The mechanisms of patulin-induced cellular toxicity in an immortalized rat granulosa cell line were examined using several vital fluorescence bioassays. Monochlorobimane and 5-chloromethylfluorescein diacetate were used to monitor cellular glutathione (GSH) levels and revealed dose- and time-dependent depletion of GSH by patulin. A significant reduction in the fluorescence of the monochlorobimane-GSH conjugate by 0.1 microM patulin was observed between 1 and 2 hr. Similar GSH depletion by the mycotoxin was also observed in parallel studies on a liver (Clone 9) and a renal (LLC-PK1) cell line, although reduction of fluorescence occurred within 1 hr at the same dosage. Analysis of the electrical potential-dependent partitioning of rhodamine 123 into mitochondria also revealed significant effects of patulin within 1 hr at 0.1 microM. An initial dose-dependent reduction in mitochondrial fluorescence was followed by loss of selective partitioning of the fluorophore into mitochondria at higher doses and/or a longer exposure of cells to patulin. The reduction in mitochondrial fluorescence was paralleled by a dose-dependent decrease in intracellular pH detected with 2',7'-bis-(2-carboxyethyl)-5(6)-carboxyfluorescein. Analysis of [Ca2+]i with indo-1 and fluo-3 revealed a significant dose-dependent influx of Ca2+ at 10 microM and an alteration of the pattern of ionomycin-induced Ca2+ influx at 1.0 microM following patulin treatment. A carboxyfluorescein fluorescence photobleaching assay was used to examine the effects of patulin on gap junction-mediated intercellular communication. Dose-dependent reduction in intercellular communication was observed within 2 hr with 1.0 microM patulin. These observations indicate that the fluorescence assays used in this study provide a sensitive index of toxicity caused by exposure to patulin. Further, the toxic effects of patulin may involve direct effects on cellular glutathione levels and mitochondrial function in addition to direct effects on the plasma membrane.
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Affiliation(s)
- R C Burghardt
- Department of Veterinary Anatomy and Public Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, Texas A&M University, College Station 77843-4458
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Bourdiol D, Escoula L, Salvayre R. Effect of patulin on microbicidal activity of mouse peritoneal macrophages. Food Chem Toxicol 1990; 28:29-33. [PMID: 2155864 DOI: 10.1016/0278-6915(90)90132-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Patulin, a fungal metabolite shown previously to exert immunosuppressive effects on the cellular and humoral immune systems, was examined for its in vitro effects on some functions of murine peritoneal macrophages. The cells were pre-incubated for 2 hr with mycotoxin concentrations of 0.01-2 micrograms/ml. Phagocytosis and phagosome-lysosome fusion were diminished above 0.1 microgram patulin/ml and lysosomal enzymes and microbicidal activity above 0.5 microgram/ml, whereas O2- production was inhibited only above 2 micrograms/ml. This indicated that the killing mechanism did not depend on products of the oxidative burst. The concentrations used did not decrease the cell viability. Under natural circumstances, patulin may constitute a health risk for animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Bourdiol
- Station de Pharmacologie-Toxicologie, Unité Immunotoxicologie INRA, Toulouse, France
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Riley RT, Hinton DM, Showker JL, Rigsby W, Norred WP. Chronology of patulin-induced alterations in membrane function of cultured renal cells, LLC-PK. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 1990; 102:128-41. [PMID: 2153317 DOI: 10.1016/0041-008x(90)90090-h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
In a previous study we compared the effects of patulin (PAT) and ouabain, a specific inhibitor of the Na(+)-K+ ATPase, and found significant differences with regard to the kinetics of Na+ influx and K+ efflux, and sulfhydryl reactivity in LLC-PK1 cells. The purpose of the present study was to determine the relationship between Na+ influx, K+ efflux, membrane potential ([3H]tetraphenylphosphonium accumulation), cellular viability [lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release], and changes in cell morphology (blebs). The effects of PAT are concentration and time dependent. At concentrations of PAT above 10 microM there is a transient increase in intracellular electronegativity (less than 1 hr) followed by a sustained depolarization (greater than 1 hr) which is correlated with complete Na+ influx, K+ efflux, total LDH release, and bleb formation. However, at PAT concentrations of 5-10 microM there is a sustained increased intracellular electronegativity (4-8 hr) which is associated with partial Na+ influx and K+ efflux, no significant LDH release, and relatively few blebs. The hyperpolarizing effect may be a result of increased permeability to K+ relative to Na+. At times and concentrations which result in increased intracellular electronegativity, PAT has no effect on [3H]ouabain binding and thus increased Na+/K+ pump turnover does not seem to be the cause of the transient hyperpolarizing effect of PAT. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that PAT causes alterations in plasma membrane permeability which favor K+ efflux relative to Na+ influx. The toxic effects of PAT are irreversible in LLC-PK1 cells after even short pretreatment with PAT. The primary toxic lesion appears to be at some level other than that involving inhibition of macromolecular synthesis, perhaps the plasma membrane itself.
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Affiliation(s)
- R T Riley
- Russell Research Center, United States Department of Agriculture, Athens, Georgia 30613
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Hinton DM, Riley RT, Showker JL, Rigsby WE. Patulin-induced ion flux in cultured renal cells and reversal by dithiothreitol and glutathione: a scanning electron microscopy (SEM) X-ray microanalysis study. JOURNAL OF BIOCHEMICAL TOXICOLOGY 1989; 4:47-54. [PMID: 2549248 DOI: 10.1002/jbt.2570040109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Patulin (PAT), a compound produced by certain species of Aspergillus, Penicillium, and Byssochlamys, is frequently found associated with agricultural commodities. PAT has many effects on membrane function, including the inhibition of the isolated Na+-K+ ATPase. In this study, a scanning electron microscope equipped with an energy dispersive spectroscopy X-ray microanalysis system was used to examine individual cultured renal epithelial cells (LLC-PK1) in order to determine the effects of PAT on the relative intracellular ion concentrations. The estimated EC50 (60 min) for both sodium influx and potassium efflux was between 10 and 50 microns for ouabain. For PAT, the EC50 (60 min) was 250 microns for sodium influx and 100 microns for potassium efflux. However, 1 mM patulin at 240 min caused complete reversal of the sodium and potassium content of cells, and 1 mM ouabain at 240 min did not. The effect of patulin on sodium and potassium flux was both concentration and time dependent and was reversed by dithiothreitol and glutathione. PAT (250 microM) but not ouabain (250 microM) induced massive blebbing of LLC-PK1 cells. Thus, the interaction of PAT with cellular membranes involves both alterations in the regulation of intracellular ion content and the cytoskeleton. We hypothesize that patulin alters intracellular ion content via Na+-K+ ATPase and non-Na+-K+ ATPase mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- D M Hinton
- Toxicology and Mycotoxins Research Unit, Russell Research Center, USDA/ARS, Athens, GA 30613
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Escoula L, Thomsen M, Bourdiol D, Pipy B, Peuriere S, Roubinet F. Patulin immunotoxicology: effect on phagocyte activation and the cellular and humoral immune system of mice and rabbits. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF IMMUNOPHARMACOLOGY 1988; 10:983-9. [PMID: 3265132 DOI: 10.1016/0192-0561(88)90045-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Patulin is a mycotoxin frequently found in rotten apples or molded corn. We have investigated the effect of sublethal doses of patulin on the immune system in mice and rabbits. A significant suppression of the chemiluminescence response of peritoneal leucocytes was observed in both species. Mouse spleen lymphocytes showed a decrease in absolute number, most pronounced for the B-cell population whereas the Ts population showed a relative increase after patulin treatment. The mitogenic response to PHA, Con A and, in particular, PWM was also depressed by patulin. This was paralleled by decreasing serum immunoglobulin levels in the mice and rabbits. The immunosuppressive effect of patulin is reversible and is probably due to interaction with cellular free SH groups since the action of patulin can be circumvented, at least partially, by the prior administration of cystein. Under natural circumstances, patulin may constitute a health risk for animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Escoula
- Station de Pharmacologie et Toxicologie INRA, Département d'Immunotoxicologie, Toulouse, France
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Arafat W, Kern D, Dirheimer G. Inhibition of aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases by the mycotoxin patulin. Chem Biol Interact 1985; 56:333-49. [PMID: 3907866 DOI: 10.1016/0009-2797(85)90015-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
The effect of patulin on tRNA aminoacylation has been determined. This mycotoxin inhibits the aminoacylation process by irreversibly inactivating aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases. At neutral and alkaline pH-values, the inactivation occurs mainly by modification of essential thiol groups of the protein, whereas at acidic pH, where the effect is the most pronounced, the modification of other amino acid residues cannot be excluded.
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Hatey F, Moulé Y. Protein synthesis inhibition in rat liver by the mycotoxin patulin. Toxicology 1979. [DOI: 10.1016/s0300-483x(79)80026-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Pillon DJ, Moree L, Rocha H, Pashley DH, Mendicino J, Leibach FH. The role of glutathione in renal cortical tissue. Effects of diamide on Na+ and GSSG levels, amino acid transport and Na+-K+-ATPase activity. Mol Cell Biochem 1977; 18:109-15. [PMID: 146823 DOI: 10.1007/bf00280276] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The effects of diamide were studied in rat kidney cortical tissue. It was found that diamide increased oxidized glutathione levels and inhibited Na+-K+-ATPase activity. Consistent with this finding was the observation that diamide compromised the sodium gradients maintained in renal cortical slices. Amino acid transport studies with ouabain or a sodium-free buffer indicated that diamide interferes with both Na+-dependent and Na+-independent transport systems. These results indicate that diamide has a number of different effects on renal cortical tissue and emphasize the important role of glutathione in maintaining control of a number of key metabolic pathways.
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