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Ommati MM, Mobasheri A, Niknahad H, Rezaei M, Alidaee S, Arjmand A, Mazloomi S, Abdoli N, Sadeghian I, Sabouri S, Saeed M, Mousavi K, Najibi A, Heidari R. Low-dose ketamine improves animals' locomotor activity and decreases brain oxidative stress and inflammation in ammonia-induced neurotoxicity. J Biochem Mol Toxicol 2023; 37:e23468. [PMID: 37491939 DOI: 10.1002/jbt.23468] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2022] [Revised: 06/10/2023] [Accepted: 07/08/2023] [Indexed: 07/27/2023]
Abstract
Ammonium ion (NH4 + ) is the major suspected molecule responsible for neurological complications of hepatic encephalopathy (HE). No specific pharmacological action for NH4 + -induced brain injury exists so far. Excitotoxicity is a well-known phenomenon in the brain of hyperammonemic cases. The hyperactivation of the N-Methyl- d-aspartate (NMDA) receptors by agents such as glutamate, an NH4 + metabolite, could cause excitotoxicity. Excitotoxicity is connected with events such as oxidative stress and neuroinflammation. Hence, utilizing NMDA receptor antagonists could prevent neurological complications of NH4 + neurotoxicity. In the current study, C57BL6/J mice received acetaminophen (APAP; 800 mg/kg, i.p) to induce HE. Hyperammonemic animals were treated with ketamine (0.25, 0.5, and 1 mg/kg, s.c) as an NMDA receptor antagonist. Animals' brain and plasma levels of NH4 + were dramatically high, and animals' locomotor activities were disturbed. Moreover, several markers of oxidative stress were significantly increased in the brain. A significant increase in brain tissue levels of TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β was also detected in hyperammonemic animals. It was found that ketamine significantly normalized animals' locomotor activity, improved biomarkers of oxidative stress, and decreased proinflammatory cytokines. The effects of ketamine on oxidative stress biomarkers and inflammation seem to play a key role in its neuroprotective mechanisms in the current study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad Mehdi Ommati
- College of Life Sciences, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu, Shanxi, China
- Henan Key Laboratory of Environmental and Animal Product Safety, College of Animal Science and Technology, Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang, Henan, China
| | - Ali Mobasheri
- Research Unit of Medical Imaging, Physics, and Technology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland
- Departments of Orthopedics, Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Department of Regenerative Medicine, State Research Institute Centre for Innovative Medicine, Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Hossein Niknahad
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Pharmacy, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Mohammad Rezaei
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Pharmacy, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Sepideh Alidaee
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Pharmacy, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Abdollah Arjmand
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Sahra Mazloomi
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Pharmacy, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Narges Abdoli
- Food and Drug Administration, Iran Ministry of Health and Medical Education, Tehran, Iran
| | - Issa Sadeghian
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
- Biotechnology Incubator, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Samira Sabouri
- Henan Key Laboratory of Environmental and Animal Product Safety, College of Animal Science and Technology, Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang, Henan, China
| | - Mohsen Saeed
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Pharmacy, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Khadijeh Mousavi
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Asma Najibi
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Reza Heidari
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
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Jacquens A, Needham EJ, Zanier ER, Degos V, Gressens P, Menon D. Neuro-Inflammation Modulation and Post-Traumatic Brain Injury Lesions: From Bench to Bed-Side. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:11193. [PMID: 36232495 PMCID: PMC9570205 DOI: 10.3390/ijms231911193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2022] [Revised: 09/14/2022] [Accepted: 09/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Head trauma is the most common cause of disability in young adults. Known as a silent epidemic, it can cause a mosaic of symptoms, whether neurological (sensory-motor deficits), psychiatric (depressive and anxiety symptoms), or somatic (vertigo, tinnitus, phosphenes). Furthermore, cranial trauma (CT) in children presents several particularities in terms of epidemiology, mechanism, and physiopathology-notably linked to the attack of an immature organ. As in adults, head trauma in children can have lifelong repercussions and can cause social and family isolation, difficulties at school, and, later, socio-professional adversity. Improving management of the pre-hospital and rehabilitation course of these patients reduces secondary morbidity and mortality, but often not without long-term disability. One hypothesized contributor to this process is chronic neuroinflammation, which could accompany primary lesions and facilitate their development into tertiary lesions. Neuroinflammation is a complex process involving different actors such as glial cells (astrocytes, microglia, oligodendrocytes), the permeability of the blood-brain barrier, excitotoxicity, production of oxygen derivatives, cytokine release, tissue damage, and neuronal death. Several studies have investigated the effect of various treatments on the neuroinflammatory response in traumatic brain injury in vitro and in animal and human models. The aim of this review is to examine the various anti-inflammatory therapies that have been implemented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alice Jacquens
- Unité de Neuroanesthésie-Réanimation, Hôpital de la Pitié Salpêtrière 43-87, Boulevard de l’Hôpital, F-75013 Paris, France
- Inserm, Maladies Neurodéveloppementales et Neurovasculaires, Université Paris Cité, F-75019 Paris, France
| | - Edward J. Needham
- Division of Anaesthesia, Addenbrooke’s Hospital, University of Cambridge, Box 93, Hills Road, Cambridge CB2 2QQ, UK
| | - Elisa R. Zanier
- Department of Neuroscience, Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri IRCCS, 20156 Milan, Italy
| | - Vincent Degos
- Unité de Neuroanesthésie-Réanimation, Hôpital de la Pitié Salpêtrière 43-87, Boulevard de l’Hôpital, F-75013 Paris, France
- Inserm, Maladies Neurodéveloppementales et Neurovasculaires, Université Paris Cité, F-75019 Paris, France
| | - Pierre Gressens
- Inserm, Maladies Neurodéveloppementales et Neurovasculaires, Université Paris Cité, F-75019 Paris, France
| | - David Menon
- Division of Anaesthesia, Addenbrooke’s Hospital, University of Cambridge, Box 93, Hills Road, Cambridge CB2 2QQ, UK
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Zhou X, Liu J, Yang S, Su Y, Meng Z, Hu Y. Ketamine ameliorates hypoxia-induced endothelial injury in human umbilical vein endothelial cells. Clinics (Sao Paulo) 2020; 75:e1865. [PMID: 32935825 PMCID: PMC7470431 DOI: 10.6061/clinics/2020/e1865] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2020] [Accepted: 05/19/2020] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Hypoxia leads to endothelial cell inflammation, apoptosis, and damage, which plays an important role in the complications associated with ischemic cardiovascular disease. As an oxidoreductase, p66Shc plays an important role in the regulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and apoptosis. Ketamine is widely used in clinics. This study was designed to assess the potential protective effect of ketamine against hypoxia-induced injury in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs). Moreover, we explored the potential mechanism by which ketamine protected against hypoxia-induced endothelial injury. METHODS The protective effects of ketamine against hypoxia-induced injury was assessed using cell viability and adhesion assays, quantitative polymerase chain reaction, and western blotting. RESULTS Our data showed that hypoxia reduced HUVEC viability, increased the adhesion between HUVECs and monocytes, and upregulated the expression of endothelial adhesion molecules at the protein and mRNA levels. Moreover, hypoxia increased ROS accumulation and upregulated p66Shc expression. Furthermore, hypoxia downregulated sirt1 expression in HUVECs. Alternatively, ketamine was shown to reverse the hypoxia-mediated reduction of cell viability and increase in the adhesion between HUVECs and monocytes, ameliorate hypoxia-induced ROS accumulation, and suppress p66Shc expression. Moreover, EX527, a sirt1 inhibitor, reversed the protective effects of ketamine against the hypoxia-mediated reduction of cell viability and increase in adhesion between HUVECs and monocytes. CONCLUSION Ketamine reduces hypoxia-induced p66Shc expression and attenuates ROS accumulation via upregulating sirt1 in HUVECs, thus attenuating hypoxia-induced endothelial cell inflammation and apoptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaohui Zhou
- Department of Endocrinology, Huzhou Central Hospital, Affiliated Central Hospital of HuZhou University, 198 Hongqi Road, Huzhou 31300, Zhejiang, People's Republic of China
| | - Jing Liu
- Department of Anesthesia, Huzhou Maternal & Child Health Care Hospital, Huzhou 313000, Zhejiang, China
| | - Siyi Yang
- Affiliated Central Hospital, HuZhou University, Emergency Department of Huzhou Central Hospital, 198 Hongqi Road, Huzhou 31300, Zhejiang, People's Republic of China
| | - Yanguang Su
- Anesthesiology Department, Huzhou Central Hospital, Affiliated Central Hospital of HuZhou University, 198 Hongqi Road, Huzhou 31300, Zhejiang, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhipeng Meng
- Anesthesiology Department, Huzhou Central Hospital, Affiliated Central Hospital of HuZhou University, 198 Hongqi Road, Huzhou 31300, Zhejiang, People's Republic of China
- *Corresponding authors. E-mails: /
| | - Yuqin Hu
- Anesthesiology Department, Huzhou Central Hospital, Affiliated Central Hospital of HuZhou University, 198 Hongqi Road, Huzhou 31300, Zhejiang, People's Republic of China
- *Corresponding authors. E-mails: /
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Lu Y, Ding X, Wu X, Huang S. Ketamine inhibits LPS‐mediated BV2 microglial inflammation via NMDA receptor blockage. Fundam Clin Pharmacol 2019; 34:229-237. [DOI: 10.1111/fcp.12508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2019] [Revised: 08/13/2019] [Accepted: 09/06/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yaojun Lu
- Department of Anaesthesiology The Obstetrics and Gynecology Hospital of Fudan University No. 128 Shenyang road Shanghai200090China
| | - Xiaonan Ding
- Department of Anaesthesiology Huashan Hospital Fudan University No.12 Middle Wulumuqi road Shanghai200040China
| | - Xin Wu
- Department of Anaesthesiology Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Center Fudan University No. 270 Dongan road Shanghai China
- Department of Oncology Shanghai Medical College Fudan University No. 270 Dongan road Shanghai China
| | - Shaoqiang Huang
- Department of Anaesthesiology The Obstetrics and Gynecology Hospital of Fudan University No. 128 Shenyang road Shanghai200090China
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Neurochemical models of near-death experiences: A large-scale study based on the semantic similarity of written reports. Conscious Cogn 2019; 69:52-69. [PMID: 30711788 DOI: 10.1016/j.concog.2019.01.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2018] [Revised: 01/16/2019] [Accepted: 01/20/2019] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The real or perceived proximity to death often results in a non-ordinary state of consciousness characterized by phenomenological features such as the perception of leaving the body boundaries, feelings of peace, bliss and timelessness, life review, the sensation of traveling through a tunnel and an irreversible threshold. Near-death experiences (NDEs) are comparable among individuals of different cultures, suggesting an underlying neurobiological mechanism. Anecdotal accounts of the similarity between NDEs and certain drug-induced altered states of consciousness prompted us to perform a large-scale comparative analysis of these experiences. After assessing the semantic similarity between ≈15,000 reports linked to the use of 165 psychoactive substances and 625 NDE narratives, we determined that the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonist ketamine consistently resulted in reports most similar to those associated with NDEs. Ketamine was followed by Salvia divinorum (a plant containing a potent and selective κ receptor agonist) and a series of serotonergic psychedelics, including the endogenous serotonin 2A receptor agonist N,N-Dimethyltryptamine (DMT). This similarity was driven by semantic concepts related to consciousness of the self and the environment, but also by those associated with the therapeutic, ceremonial and religious aspects of drug use. Our analysis sheds light on the long-standing link between certain drugs and the experience of "dying", suggests that ketamine could be used as a safe and reversible experimental model for NDE phenomenology, and supports the speculation that endogenous NMDA antagonists with neuroprotective properties may be released in the proximity of death.
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Santos J, Milthorpe BK, Padula MP. Proteomic Analysis of Cyclic Ketamine Compounds Ability to Induce Neural Differentiation in Human Adult Mesenchymal Stem Cells. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20030523. [PMID: 30691166 PMCID: PMC6387408 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20030523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2018] [Revised: 01/04/2019] [Accepted: 01/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Neural regeneration is of great interest due to its potential to treat traumatic brain injuries and diseases that impact quality of life. Growth factor mediated differentiation can take up to several weeks to months to produce the cell of interest whereas chemical stimulation may be as minimal as a few hours. The smaller time scale is of great clinical relevance. Adipose derived stem cells (ADSCs) were treated for up to 24 h with a novel differentiation media containing the cyclic ketamine compounds to direct neurogenic induction. The extent of differentiation was investigated by proteome changes occurring during the process. The treatments indicated the ADSCs responded favorably to the neurogenic induction media by presenting a number of morphological cues of neuronal phenotype previously seen and a higher cell population post induction compared to previous studies. Furthermore, approximately 3500 proteins were analyzed and identified by mass spectrometric iTRAQ analyses. The bioinformatics analyses revealed hundreds of proteins whose expression level changes were statistically significant and biologically relevant to neurogenesis and annotated as being involved in neurogenic development. Complementing this, the Bioplex cytokine assay profiles present evidence of decreased panel of stress response cytokines and a relative increase in those involved in neurogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jerran Santos
- Advanced Tissue Regeneration & Drug Delivery Group, School of Life Sciences, University of Technology Sydney, P.O. Box 123 Broadway, Ultimo 2007, Australia.
- Proteomics Core Facility and School of Life Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Technology Sydney, P.O. Box 123 Broadway, Ultimo 2007, Australia.
- CIRIMAT, Paul Sabatier, University of Toulouse 3 (INPT), 118 Route de Narbonne, 31062 Toulouse, France.
| | - Bruce Kenneth Milthorpe
- Advanced Tissue Regeneration & Drug Delivery Group, School of Life Sciences, University of Technology Sydney, P.O. Box 123 Broadway, Ultimo 2007, Australia.
| | - Matthew Paul Padula
- Proteomics Core Facility and School of Life Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Technology Sydney, P.O. Box 123 Broadway, Ultimo 2007, Australia.
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Liang J, Wu S, Xie W, He H. Ketamine ameliorates oxidative stress-induced apoptosis in experimental traumatic brain injury via the Nrf2 pathway. DRUG DESIGN DEVELOPMENT AND THERAPY 2018; 12:845-853. [PMID: 29713142 PMCID: PMC5907785 DOI: 10.2147/dddt.s160046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Background Ketamine can act as a multifunctional neuroprotective agent by inhibiting oxidative stress, cellular dysfunction, and apoptosis. Although it has been proven to be effective in various neurologic disorders, the mechanism of the treatment of traumatic brain injury (TBI) is not fully understood. The aim of this study was to investigate the neuroprotective function of ketamine in models of TBI and the potential role of the nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) pathway in this putative protective effect. Materials and methods Wild-type male mice were randomly assigned to five groups: Sham group, Sham + ketamine group, TBI group, TBI + vehicle group, and TBI + ketamine group. Marmarou’s weight drop model in mice was used to induce TBI, after which either ketamine or vehicle was administered via intraperitoneal injection. After 24 h, the brain samples were collected for analysis. Results Ketamine significantly ameliorated secondary brain injury induced by TBI, including neurological deficits, brain water content, and neuronal apoptosis. In addition, the levels of malondialdehyde (MDA), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), and superoxide dismutase (SOD) were restored by the ketamine treatment. Western blotting and immunohistochemistry showed that ketamine significantly increased the level of Nrf2. Furthermore, administration of ketamine also induced the expression of Nrf2 pathway-related downstream factors, including hemeoxygenase-1 and quinine oxidoreductase-1, at the pre- and post-transcriptional levels. Conclusion Ketamine exhibits neuroprotective effects by attenuating oxidative stress and apoptosis after TBI. Therefore, ketamine could be an effective therapeutic agent for the treatment of TBI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinwei Liang
- Department of Anesthesiology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Fujian Medical University, Quanzhou, Fujian Province, People's Republic of China
| | - Shanhu Wu
- Department of Anesthesiology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Fujian Medical University, Quanzhou, Fujian Province, People's Republic of China
| | - Wenxi Xie
- Department of Anesthesiology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Fujian Medical University, Quanzhou, Fujian Province, People's Republic of China
| | - Hefan He
- Department of Anesthesiology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Fujian Medical University, Quanzhou, Fujian Province, People's Republic of China
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Abstract
Ketamine is a unique anaesthetic drug which produces dissociative anaesthesia. In this condition the patient is insensible, with excellent analgesia but with minimal depression of respiration and circulation. The analgesia can be maintained at subanaesthetic doses. The pharmacology and practical use of ketamine is discussed with practical emphasis on its use in trauma patients, for whom it has special advantages.
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Affiliation(s)
- PR Wood
- University Hospital Birmingham NHS Trust, Selly Oak Hospital, Birmingham, UK
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9
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Easby J, Dodds C. Emergency induction of anaesthesia in the prehospital setting: a review of the anaesthetic induction agents. TRAUMA-ENGLAND 2016. [DOI: 10.1191/1460408604ta317oa] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The standard of prehospital care is improving in many trauma systems around the world. For patients surviving the primary injury, the optimal prehospital interven tions remain debatable. Current evidence suggests that patients with severe head injury may benefit from advanced airway management, most commonly per formed by rapid sequence induction of anaesthesia and orotracheal intubation. The ‘best choice’ induction agent remains unclear, and choice seems to depend on local preferences and the skill mix of the prehospital care team. In this review we look at the recent evidence for selected hypnotic agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Easby
- James Cook University Hospital, Cleveland, UK,
| | - C Dodds
- James Cook University Hospital, Cleveland, UK
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10
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Lodge D, Mercier MS. Ketamine and phencyclidine: the good, the bad and the unexpected. Br J Pharmacol 2015; 172:4254-76. [PMID: 26075331 DOI: 10.1111/bph.13222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 126] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2015] [Revised: 05/29/2015] [Accepted: 06/03/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The history of ketamine and phencyclidine from their development as potential clinical anaesthetics through drugs of abuse and animal models of schizophrenia to potential rapidly acting antidepressants is reviewed. The discovery in 1983 of the NMDA receptor antagonist property of ketamine and phencyclidine was a key step to understanding their pharmacology, including their psychotomimetic effects in man. This review describes the historical context and the course of that discovery and its expansion into other hallucinatory drugs. The relevance of these findings to modern hypotheses of schizophrenia and the implications for drug discovery are reviewed. The findings of the rapidly acting antidepressant effects of ketamine in man are discussed in relation to other glutamatergic mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Lodge
- Centre for Synaptic Plasticity, School of Physiology and Pharmacology, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
| | - M S Mercier
- Centre for Synaptic Plasticity, School of Physiology and Pharmacology, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
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Non-opioid IV adjuvants in the perioperative period: Pharmacological and clinical aspects of ketamine and gabapentinoids. Pharmacol Res 2012; 65:411-29. [DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2012.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2011] [Revised: 01/04/2012] [Accepted: 01/04/2012] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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12
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Neuroprotective phenolics in medicinal plants. Arch Pharm Res 2010; 33:1611-32. [DOI: 10.1007/s12272-010-1011-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2010] [Revised: 09/02/2010] [Accepted: 09/02/2010] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
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Braeuninger S, Kleinschnitz C. Rodent models of focal cerebral ischemia: procedural pitfalls and translational problems. EXPERIMENTAL & TRANSLATIONAL STROKE MEDICINE 2009; 1:8. [PMID: 20150986 PMCID: PMC2820446 DOI: 10.1186/2040-7378-1-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2009] [Accepted: 11/25/2009] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Rodent models of focal cerebral ischemia are essential tools in experimental stroke research. They have added tremendously to our understanding of injury mechanisms in stroke and have helped to identify potential therapeutic targets. A plethora of substances, however, in particular an overwhelming number of putative neuroprotective agents, have been shown to be effective in preclinical stroke research, but have failed in clinical trials. A lot of factors may have contributed to this failure of translation from bench to bedside. Often, deficits in the quality of experimental stroke research seem to be involved. In this article, we review the commonest rodent models of focal cerebral ischemia - middle cerebral artery occlusion, photothrombosis, and embolic stroke models - with their respective advantages and problems, and we address the issue of quality in preclinical stroke modeling as well as potential reasons for translational failure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Braeuninger
- Department of Neurology, Julius-Maximilians-Universitaet Wuerzburg, Josef-Schneider-Str. 11, 97080 Wuerzburg, Germany.
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Bhutta AT, Venkatesan AK, Rovnaghi CR, Anand KJS. Anaesthetic neurotoxicity in rodents: is the ketamine controversy real? Acta Paediatr 2007; 96:1554-6. [PMID: 17714546 DOI: 10.1111/j.1651-2227.2007.00436.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Adnan T Bhutta
- UAMS College of Medicine - Department of Pediatrics, Little Rock, Arkansas, USA
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Svenson JE, Abernathy MK. Ketamine for prehospital use: new look at an old drug. Am J Emerg Med 2007; 25:977-80. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ajem.2007.02.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2007] [Accepted: 02/21/2007] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
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Abstract
Ketamine is widely used for anesthesia and analgesia in neonates and children. It provides potent sedation, analgesia, and amnesia, a short duration of action, supporting hemodynamic and respiratory stability. Noncompetitive antagonism of NMDA receptors produces its primary therapeutic effects, but it also alters receptor function at dopaminergic, serotonergic, cholinergic, and opioidergic sites. Recent interest in ketamine stems from its potential to block excitotoxic cell death, although concerns have been raised about anesthetic neurotoxicity in neonatal animal models. The development of ketamine, its clinical profile, toxic effects in the immature brain, and future applications in neonates and children are reviewed in this article.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adnan T Bhutta
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, AR 72202, USA.
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Azra Haider B, Bhutta ZA. Birth asphyxia in developing countries: current status and public health implications. Curr Probl Pediatr Adolesc Health Care 2006; 36:178-88. [PMID: 16631096 DOI: 10.1016/j.cppeds.2005.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Batool Azra Haider
- Department of Paediatrics and Child Health, The Aga Khan University, Karachi, Pakistan
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Abstract
Ion channels are membrane proteins that flicker open and shut to regulate the flow of ions down their electrochemical gradient across the membrane and consequently regulate cellular excitability. Every living cell expresses ion channels, as they are critical life-sustaining proteins. Ion channels are generally either activated by voltage or by ligand interaction. For each group of ion channels the channels' molecular biology and biophysics will be introduced and the pharmacology of that group of channels will be reviewed. The in vitro and in vivo literature will be reviewed and, for ion channel groups in which clinical trials have been conducted, the efficacy and therapeutic potential of the neuroprotective compounds will be reviewed. A large part of this article will deal with glutamate receptors, focusing specifically on N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors. Although the outcome of clinical trials for NMDA receptor antagonists as therapeutics for acute stroke is disappointing, the culmination of these failed trials was preceded by a decade of efforts to develop these agents. Sodium and calcium channel antagonists will be reviewed and the newly emerging efforts to develop therapeutics targeting potassium channels will be discussed. The future development of stroke therapeutics targeting ion channels will be discussed in the context of the failures of the last decade in hopes that this decade will yield successful stroke therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- D L Small
- Institute or Biological Sciences, National Research Council of Canada, Building M-54, 1200 Montreal Road, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada K1A 0R6.
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Abstract
The relief of pain is an essential component of prehospital care and, when required is usually administered on completion of the primary survey. For simple analgesia morphine sulphate titrated to the clinical response and preceded by an antiemetic is usually effective, for example, in the relief of pain in chest trauma or myocardial infarction. For patients with multiple injuries and for those patients requiring manipulation and splintage of fractures and for entrapments and difficult extrications ketamine is a safe and effective option, which avoids the potential decrease in blood pressure and respiratory depression that is associated with opioid analgesia. This paper reports the personal experience in the prehospital administration of ketamine by a non-anaesthetist working as an immediate care practitioner as part of a British Association for Immediate Care (BASICS) Scheme.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Porter
- University Hospital Birmingham NHS Trust, Selly Oak Hospital, Selly Oak, Birmingham B29 6JD, UK.
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Rudin M, Ben-Abraham R, Gazit V, Tendler Y, Tashlykov V, Katz Y. Single-dose ketamine administration induces apoptosis in neonatal mouse brain. J Basic Clin Physiol Pharmacol 2005; 16:231-43. [PMID: 16438390 DOI: 10.1515/jbcpp.2005.16.4.231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
UNLABELLED The activity of N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors is critical for neuronal survival in the immature brain. Studies have reported that chronic blockage of these receptors mediates apoptosis in neonatal animals. We investigated the apoptotic effect of a clinically relevant single dose of ketamine, an NMDA receptor antagonist, in the brain of neonatal mice. Seven-day-old ICR mice were injected with ketamine (1.25, 2.5, 5, 10, 20, and 40 mg/kg body weight, subcutaneously in 0.9% NaCl) or with 0.9% NaCl alone as control. Righting reflex testing was performed and mouse brains were examined at 24, 48, and 72 h and 7 days after injection. The number of degenerating neurons was measured using silver staining. Apoptosis was confirmed by DNA fragmentation (terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated dUTP nick-end labeling). We observed in the sensorimotor cortex and cerebellum of ketamine-treated mice extensive apoptosis, which was clearly dose-dependent and present even after a low dose of ketamine (5 mg/kg). The most prominent apoptotic damage was detected 72 h post-injection (P < 0.001 vs control), at doses ranging from 10 to 40 mg/kg. After 7 d the number of neurodegenerative neurons, at doses ranging from 5 to 40 mg/kg, remained significantly high. The brain weight was comparable to that of untreated control mice and no gross neurobehavioral effects in the righting reflex test or alteration in the pattern of behavior was observed. The results indicate that the administration of ketamine in a clinically relevant single dose triggers long-lasting neuronal apoptosis in certain brain areas of neonatal mice. IMPLICATIONS The administration of ketamine in a clinically relevant single dose to 7-d-old mice induced apoptosis in the sensorimotor cortex and cerebellum. This effect was dose-dependent and long lasting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Rudin
- Dept. of Anesthesiology, HaEmek Medical Center, Afula, Israel
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22
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Ozden S, Isenmann S. Neuroprotective Properties of Different Anesthetics on Axotomized Rat Retinal Ganglion CellsIn Vivo. J Neurotrauma 2004; 21:73-82. [PMID: 14987467 DOI: 10.1089/089771504772695968] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Following transection of the optic nerve (ON) in the adult rat, 85% of axotomized retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) undergo degeneration within 14 days. Here, we examined the effects of various anesthetic and analgesic compounds on the number of RGCs surviving ON lesion. Five different protocols for rodent anesthesia were used (A, chloral hydrate; B, chloral hydrate/carprofen; C, chloral hydrate/buprenorphine; D, ketamine/xylazine; E, fentanyl/medetomidin/midazolam), and the numbers of RGCs surviving 14 days after ON axotomy were compared to evaluate if the agents used may affect numbers of surviving RGCs. In many laboratories, rodent ON surgery is performed with chloral hydrate anesthesia, and this condition was used as baseline, with 343.7 +/- 29.1 RGCs/mm(2) surviving after 14 days. The addition of carprofen to chloral hydrate did not affect RGC numbers (382.7 +/- 15.2 RGCs/mm(2); n.s.), while chloral hydrate with buprenorphine (421.1 +/- 25.1 RGCs/mm(2); p < 0.05), ketamine and xylazine (403.6 +/- 36.1 RGCs/mm(2); p < 0.05), or fentanyl with medetomidine and midazolam (481.3 +/- 10.4 RGCs/mm(2); p < 0.05) all increased RGC survival. In a second series of experiments, ON axotomized rats were treated with an adenoviral vector expressing GDNF (Ad.GDNF) that rescues injured RGCs, to study if the anesthetics (A, B, E; see above) would influence the degree of RGC neuroprotection afforded by GDNF. Intravitreal injection of Ad.GDNF at a low titre rescued approximately 10% of RGCs that would have degenerated without treatment using either of the three different anesthesia protocols, yet GDNF did not exert synergistic neuroprotection with any of the anesthetics tested. Our results indicate that in combination carprofen and chloral hydrate, while affording safe and reliable anesthesia and analgesia for rat ON surgery, does not affect the numbers of surviving RGCs. Therefore, data obtained with this combination may be related to experimental data obtained previously with only chloral hydrate anesthesia. All other protocols afforded some degree of RGC neuroprotection that may be utilized for experimental therapies of neurodegeneration, yet needs to be taken into careful consideration when mechanisms of neurodegeneration or approaches towards neuroprotection of RGCs are examined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sidar Ozden
- Neuroregeneration Laboratory, Department of Neurology, University of Jena, Jena, Germany
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Miyamoto E, Nakao S, Tomimoto H, Wakita H, Yamada M, Masuzawa M, Takahira K, Sakamoto S, Shingu K. Ketamine attenuates hypocapnia-induced neuronal damage in the caudoputamen in a rat model of chronic cerebral hypoperfusion. Neurosci Lett 2004; 354:26-9. [PMID: 14698474 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2003.09.058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
We previously demonstrated that the caudoputamen was exclusively further damaged by hypocapnia in a rat with chronic cerebral hypoperfusion which is characterized by white matter lesions (WML) and a well-established model for patients with cerebrovascular diseases and/or dementia, and suggest that this process may be the cause of long lasting postoperative delirium or brain dysfunction in such patients. In the present study, we investigated whether ketamine, a non-competitive N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor antagonist, could attenuate the neuronal damage in the caudoputamen. Ketamine, at doses of 10 and 20 mg/kg, which was given intraperitoneally before hypocapnia induction, attenuated the aggravation of WML score, neuronal damage, and astroglial proliferation in the rat caudoputamen. These results suggest that ketamine may be beneficial for preventing postoperative brain dysfunction, especially in patients with cerebrovascular diseases and/or dementia induced by hypocapnia, which is likely to occur in the mechanical ventilation used during surgery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Etsuko Miyamoto
- Department of Anesthesiology, Kansai Medical University, Fumizono-cho, Moriguchi-city, Osaka 570-8507, Japan
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24
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Hijazi Y, Bodonian C, Bolon M, Salord F, Boulieu R. Pharmacokinetics and haemodynamics of ketamine in intensive care patients with brain or spinal cord injury. Br J Anaesth 2003; 90:155-60. [PMID: 12538370 DOI: 10.1093/bja/aeg028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Ketamine is used as an anaesthetic agent for short surgical procedures, and as a sedative and analgesic in intensive care patients. Intensive care patients with brain or spinal cord injury may have physiological changes that could alter the pharmacokinetics of ketamine. The pharmacokinetics of ketamine have been studied in healthy volunteers and in patients undergoing different types of surgery, but no data are available in intensive care patients. METHODS We determined the pharmacokinetics of ketamine and its active metabolites, norketamine and dehydronorketamine, in 12 intensive care patients with brain or spinal cord injury. The effect of ketamine on haemodynamic variables was also investigated. RESULTS The total clearance of ketamine, mean (SD), was 36.0 (13.3) ml min(-1) kg(-1), the volume of distribution (Vbeta) was 16.0 (8.6) litre kg(-1), and the elimination half-life was 4.9 (1.6) h. Ketamine did not alter any haemodynamic variables in the patients studied. CONCLUSIONS Pharmacokinetic variables of ketamine in intensive care patients are greater than in healthy volunteers and in surgical patients. The increase in the volume of distribution is greater than the increase in clearance, resulting in a longer estimated half-life of ketamine in this patient group.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Hijazi
- Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Faculté de Pharmacie, Département de Pharmacie, Clinique de Pharmacocinétique et d'Evaluation du Médicament, 8 Avenue Rockefeller, F-69373 Lyon, Cedex 08, France
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Hijazi Y, Bodonian C, Salord F, Bressolle F, Boulieu R. Pharmacokinetic-Pharmacodynamic Modelling of Ketamine in Six Neurotraumatised Intensive Care Patients. Clin Drug Investig 2003; 23:605-9. [PMID: 17535074 DOI: 10.2165/00044011-200323090-00007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Youssef Hijazi
- Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Faculté de Pharmacie, Département de Pharmacie Clinique de Pharmacocinétique et d’Evaluation du Médicament, Lyon, FranceHôpital Neuro-Cardiologique, Laboratoire de Pharmacocinétique Clinique, Lyon, France
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26
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Kitagawa H, Yamazaki T, Akiyama T, Yahagi N, Kawada T, Mori H, Sunagawa K. Modulatory effects of ketamine on catecholamine efflux from in vivo cardiac sympathetic nerve endings in cats. Neurosci Lett 2002; 324:232-6. [PMID: 12009530 DOI: 10.1016/s0304-3940(02)00208-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
With the use of the microdialysis technique, we examined the modulatory effect of ketamine on catecholamine efflux from in vivo cardiac sympathetic nerve endings. A dialysis probe was implanted in the left ventricular myocardium, and dialysate norepinephrine (NE) levels in anesthetized cats were measured with liquid chromatogram-electrical detection. A 60-min occlusion of the left anterior descending coronary artery caused increases in dialysate NE levels. Through the dialysis probe, locally applied ketamine (10 mM) augmented the dialysate NE responses to coronary occlusion in the presence and absence of desipramine (membrane NE transport blocker). Thus, the ketamine-induced NE increment is not mediated through the neuronal NE transporter. The sympathomimetic action of ketamine may augment the NE efflux evoked by myocardial ischemia.
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Dizocilpine but not ketamine reduces the volume of ischaemic damage after acute subdural haematoma in the rat. Eur J Anaesthesiol 2001. [DOI: 10.1097/00003643-200105000-00003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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28
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Mathews KS, Toner CC, McLaughlin DP, Stamford JA. Comparison of ketamine stereoisomers on tissue metabolic activity in an in vitro model of global cerebral ischaemia. Neurochem Int 2001; 38:367-72. [PMID: 11222916 DOI: 10.1016/s0197-0186(00)00125-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Ketamine (2-o-chlorophenenyl-2-methylaminocyclohexanone hydrochloride) is a dissociative general anaesthetic with neuroprotective properties. Since ketamine is optically active, we compared the neuroprotective efficacy of the (+)- or (-)-enantiomers in global cerebral ischaemia. Rat corticostriatal slices superfused with, or incubated in, artificial CSF at 34 degrees C were subjected to a brief ischaemic insult. Dopamine efflux was measured using fast cyclic voltammetry. Tissue metabolism was determined with 2,3,5-triphenyltetrazolium chloride staining, a marker of mitochondrial enzyme activity. In control slices, ischaemia caused rapid striatal dopamine release (to 122 microM over 18 s) after an initial delay of 149s. Racemic ketamine (100 micromol/l) significantly delayed (by 24%, P<0.05), slowed (by 63%, P<0.01) and reduced (by 27%, P<0.05) ischaemia-induced dopamine release. Ischaemia (10 min) also caused significant decreases in striatal (25%, P<0.01) and cortical (31%, P<0.001) metabolic activity, manifested as a drop in mean TTC staining intensity. Racemic ketamine and its (+)- and (-)-enantiomers (each 100 microM) attenuated the loss of metabolic activity in the striatum. However, in the cortex, only (+)-ketamine (100 microM) was significantly neuroprotective. We conclude that neuroprotection by ketamine in cerebral ischaemia is both region- and isomer-dependent.
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Affiliation(s)
- K S Mathews
- Neurotransmission Laboratory, Academic Department of Anaesthesia and Intensive Care, St Bartholomew's and the Royal London School of Medicine and Dentistry, Royal London Hospital, Whitechapel, London E1 1BB, UK
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Hara A, Niwa M, Iwai T, Yano H, Nakashima M, Bunai Y, Uematsu T, Yoshimi N, Mori H. Failure of preventive effects of 2-deoxy-D-glucose on ischemia-induced gerbil hippocampal neuronal damage by induced hyperthermia. Brain Res 1999; 840:167-70. [PMID: 10517966 DOI: 10.1016/s0006-8993(99)01790-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Post-ischemic administration of 2-deoxy-D-glucose (2-DG), a glucose antimetabolite, markedly reduces the occurrence of ischemia-induced delayed neuronal death (DND) in the gerbil hippocampus. This means that the reduction of energy dependent metabolism after ischemia prevents ischemia-induced damages of hippocampal neurons. In the present study, we demonstrated hyperthermia during ischemia fails to preserve neurons in hippocampal CA1 of 2-DG treated gerbil following transient forebrain ischemia.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Hara
- Department of Pathology, Gifu University School of Medicine, Gifu, Japan.
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31
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Spandou E, Karkavelas G, Soubasi V, Avgovstides-Savvopoulou P, Loizidis T, Guiba-Tziampiri O. Effect of ketamine on hypoxic-ischemic brain damage in newborn rats. Brain Res 1999; 819:1-7. [PMID: 10082854 DOI: 10.1016/s0006-8993(98)01333-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
The present study tests the hypothesis that ketamine, a dissociative anesthetic known to be a non-competitive antagonist of the NMDA receptor, will attenuate hypoxic-ischemic damage in neonatal rat brain. Studies were performed in 7-day-old rat pups which were divided into four groups. Animals of the first group, neither ligated nor exposed to hypoxia, served as controls. The second group was exposed to hypoxic-ischemic conditions and sacrificed immediately afterwards. Animals of the third and fourth groups were treated either with saline or ketamine (20 mg/kg, i.p.) in four doses following hypoxia. Hypoxic-ischemic injury to the left cerebral hemisphere was induced by ligation of the left common carotid artery followed by 1 h of hypoxia with 8% oxygen. Measurements of high energy phosphates (ATP and phosphocreatine) and amino acids (glutamate and glutamine) and neuropathological evaluation of the hippocampal formation were used to assess the effects of hypoxia-ischemia. The combination of common carotid artery ligation and exposure to an hypoxic environment caused major alterations in the ipsilateral hemisphere. In contrast, minor alterations in amino acid concentrations were observed after the end of hypoxia in the contralateral hemisphere. These alterations were restored during the early recovery period. Post-treatment with ketamine was associated with partial restoration of energy stores and amino acid content of the left cerebral hemisphere. Limited attenuation of the damage to the hippocampal formation as demonstrated by a reduction in the number of damaged neurons was also observed. These findings demonstrate that systemically administered ketamine after hypoxia offers partial protection to the newborn rat brain against hypoxic-ischemic injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Spandou
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
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32
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Abstract
The N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA)-glutamate receptor could contribute to stroke, trauma, and alcohol-induced brain damage through activation of nitric oxide formation and excitotoxicity. In rat primary cortical cultures NMDA was more potent at activating nitric oxide formation than triggering excitotoxicity. Ethanol dose dependently inhibited both responses. In contrast, treatment of neuronal cultures with ethanol (100 mM) for 4 days significantly increased NMDA stimulated nitric oxide formation and excitotoxicity. These findings suggest that ethanol acutely inhibits but chronically causes supersensitivity to NMDA-induced excitotoxicity in neuronal cultures. To investigate ethanol's interaction with stroke induced damage models of global cerebral ischemia were studied. Transient global ischemia resulted in a loss of hippocampal CA1 pyramidal neurons over a 3- to 5-day period. Determinations of the NMDA receptor ligand binding stoichiometry or postischemic receptor binding changes did not show differences between neurons that undergo delayed neuronal death following ischemia and those that show no toxicity, for example, CA1 and dentate gyrus, respectively. Acute ethanol (3 g/kg) was found to protect against ischemia-induced CA1 hippocampal damage by lowering body temperature, but not under temperature controled conditions. These studies indicate that the factors contributing to stroke-induced brain damage are complex, although they are consistent with chronic ethanol increasing stroke-induced brain damage by increasing NMDA excitotoxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- F T Crews
- Center for Alcohol Studies, School of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 27599-7178, USA
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33
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Neuroanesthesia and intensive care medicine: Cerebral ischemia. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1997. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1399-6576.1997.tb04889.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Browning JL, Heizer ML, Widmayer MA, Baskin DS. Effects of halothane, alpha-chloralose, and pCO2 on injury volume and CSF beta-endorphin levels in focal cerebral ischemia. MOLECULAR AND CHEMICAL NEUROPATHOLOGY 1997; 31:29-42. [PMID: 9271003 DOI: 10.1007/bf02815158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Anesthetic agent, arterial pCO2 level, and opioid peptides have all been implicated in the pathophysiology of experimental stroke models. The effects of halothane, alpha-chloralose, and differing concentrations of arterial pCO2 on injury volume and CSF beta-endorphin levels were studied in a feline model of experimental focal cerebral ischemia. The type of anesthetic agent used had no effect on injury volume following 6 h of focal cerebral ischemia. Over a 6-h period, beta-endorphin levels significantly increased from 10.1 +/- 5.0 fmol/mL at zero time to 14.4 +/- 7.2 fmol/mL at 6 h under halothane anesthesia (p < 0.05), whereas they did not significantly change (10.1 +/- 6.7 to 7.8 +/- 4.7 fmol/mL) under alpha-chloralose anesthesia. In contrast, hypercapnia had no effect on beta-endorphin levels, but significantly increased injury volume from 30.6 +/- 5.7% of the ipsilateral hemisphere under normocapnic conditions to 37.1 +/- 5.9% under hypercapnic conditions (p < 0.05). These results suggest that hypercapnia increases injury volume in a feline model of focal cerebral ischemia, and pCO2 should be controlled in experimental focal cerebral ischemia models.
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Affiliation(s)
- J L Browning
- Department of Surgery, Veteran's Affairs Medical Center, Houston, TX, USA
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35
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Zhang L, Mitani A, Yanase H, Kataoka K. Continuous monitoring and regulating of brain temperature in the conscious and freely moving ischemic gerbil: Effect of MK-801 on delayed neuronal death in hippocampal CA1. J Neurosci Res 1997. [DOI: 10.1002/(sici)1097-4547(19970215)47:4<440::aid-jnr9>3.0.co;2-e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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36
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37
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Baskaya MK, Hu Y, Donaldson D, Maley M, Rao AM, Prasad MR, Dempsey RJ. Protective effect of the 5-lipoxygenase inhibitor AA-861 on cerebral edema after transient ischemia. J Neurosurg 1996; 85:112-6. [PMID: 8683259 DOI: 10.3171/jns.1996.85.1.0112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
This study examined the effect of AA-861, a specific 5-lipoxygenase inhibitor, on brain levels of leukotriene C4 (LTC4) and correlated any changes with changes in edema formation and cerebral blood flow (CBF) after transient ischemia in gerbils. Brain levels of LTC4 were observed to be increased at 1, 2, and 6 hours of reperfusion following 20 minutes of occlusion. At 2 hours of reperfusion, a pretreatment dose of 1000 mg/kg of AA-861 was required to inhibit more than 90% of the reperfusion-induced increases in brain LTC4. At this dose, inhibition of LTC4 production was observed at 2 and 6 hours of reperfusion. The specific gravity of both the cortex and subcortex was decreased at 6 hours of reperfusion after 20 minutes of occlusion. At 2 hours of reperfusion, no significant difference was observed in the specific gravity of the cortex and subcortex regions of gerbils pretreated with AA-861 or with vehicle, but at 6 hours of reperfusion significant positive differences were observed. Cerebral blood flow decreased to approximately 10% of preocclusion values during occlusion and returned to near-preocclusion values after 10 minutes of reperfusion. No significant differences were observed in regional CBF in the AA-861- and vehicle-pretreated gerbils during reperfusion. These findings indicate that LTC4 production after transient cerebral ischemia may be an important contributor to the development of cerebral edema and that CBF does not mediate the LTC4-involved development of edema.
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Affiliation(s)
- M K Baskaya
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Wisconsin Clinical Science Center, Madison, USA
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38
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McLean RF, Baker AJ, Walker SE, Mazer CD, Wong BI, Harrington EM. Ketamine concentrations during cardiopulmonary bypass. Can J Anaesth 1996; 43:580-4. [PMID: 8773864 DOI: 10.1007/bf03011770] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE To describe the serum concentrations of ketamine following a clinically relevant dosing schedule during cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB). METHODS DESIGN Prospective case series. SETTING Tertiary care teaching hospital. PATIENTS Six patients undergoing coronary artery bypass grafting and over age 60 yr. INTERVENTION Following induction of anaesthesia each patient received a bolus of ketamine 2 mg.kg-1 followed by an infusion of 50 micrograms.kg-1.min-1 which ran continuously until two hours after bypass. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES Ketamine serum concentrations were measured at five minutes after bolus, immediately following aortic cannulation, 10 and 20 min on CPB, termination of CPB, termination of the drug infusion and three and six hours after infusion termination. RESULTS At the time of aortic cannulation, ketamine concentrations were 3.11 +/- 0.81 micrograms.ml-1, these levels decreased by one third with the initiation of CPB. By the end of CPB the concentrations had returned to levels roughly equivalent to those observed at the time of aortic cannulation. Following cessation of the infusion, ketamine concentration declined in a log-linear fashion with a half-life averaging 2.12 hr. (range 1.38-3.09 hr). CONCLUSION This dosage regimen maintained general anaesthetic concentrations of ketamine throughout the operative period. These levels should result in brain tissue concentrations in excess of those previously shown to be neuroprotective in animals. Thus we conclude that this infusion regimen would be reasonable to be use in order to assess the potential neuroprotective effects of ketamine in humans undergoing CPB.
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Affiliation(s)
- R F McLean
- Department of Anaesthesia, Sunnybrook Health Science Centre, University of Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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39
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Small DL, Buchan AM. NMDA antagonists: their role in neuroprotection. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF NEUROBIOLOGY 1996; 40:137-71. [PMID: 8989620 DOI: 10.1016/s0074-7742(08)60719-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- D L Small
- Institute for Biological Sciences, National Research Council of Canada, Ottawa, Canada
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40
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Abstract
The protection provided by ketamine against the neuronal cytotoxicity of NMDA was investigated and compared with that provided by dizocilpine (MK 801). A massive anaesthetic dose of ketamine (180 mg/kg) was required for substantial protection (about 70%) of rat dorsal hippocampal neurons. Protection was markedly decreased if the ketamine was given in three divided doses of 60 mg/kg over a period of 2 hr, rather than as a bolus injection of 180 mg/kg. A lower dose (60 mg/kg i.p.) gave no protection when given 10 min prior to NMDA, but some protection (up to 30%) was found when administration was delayed for 1-2 hr. After 3 hr, ketamine at this dose did not protect. In comparison, the toxicity of NMDA was reduced by about 70% by prior treatment with dizocilpine at 1 mg/kg, and completely eliminated at 10 mg/kg. The lack of protection when ketamine at 60 mg/kg was administered prior to NMDA may be due to a proconvulsant action of ketamine, as diazepam in the presence but not in the absence of ketamine significantly reduced the toxicity of NMDA. However, there was no behavioural or histological evidence of increased seizure activity in the presence of ketamine. Neuroprotectant effects may prevail with massive anaesthetic doses of ketamine or when diffusion has reduced the concentration of NMDA. The heroic doses of ketamine required for protection diminish its attractiveness as a potential anti-ischaemic agent.
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Affiliation(s)
- G J Lees
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioural Science, School of Medicine, University of Auckland, New Zealand
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41
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Cottrell JE. [Pharmacologic brain protection: specific agents]. ANNALES FRANCAISES D'ANESTHESIE ET DE REANIMATION 1995; 14:134-41. [PMID: 7677279 DOI: 10.1016/s0750-7658(05)80162-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Dysfunctional sodium influx is the first step in the ischaemic cascade. It has been recently demonstrated that reducing ionic flux through voltagegated Na channels shortens the NMDA receptor activity of cultured hippocampal slices in which oxidative phosphorylation and glycolysis have been blocked. The implication of this finding is that blocking initial events in the ischaemic cascade, events which do not directly cause neuronal damage, will reduce the damage done by downstream events. It also seems intuitively reasonable to suppose that truncating initial steps of the ischaemic cascade, as distinct from blocking glutamate receptors and scavening free radicals, will reduce the probability of interfering with endogenous mechanisms of repair. Clinically useful, substantive, prophylactic, pharmacological cerebral protection will come from drugs that work upstream. And for pharmacological protection that can only be initiated subsequent to an ischaemic event, the more we learn about endogenous repair, or genetic pharmacology, the closer we will come to maximizing the benefits and minimizing the costs of downstream intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- J E Cottrell
- Department of Anesthesiology, SUNY Health Science Center at Brooklyn, USA
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Pellegrini-Giampietro DE, Cozzi A, Moroni F. The glycine antagonist and free radical scavenger 7-Cl-thio-kynurenate reduces CA1 ischemic damage in the gerbil. Neuroscience 1994; 63:701-9. [PMID: 7898671 DOI: 10.1016/0306-4522(94)90516-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
We examined whether 7-Cl-thio-kynurenate, a potent antagonist at the glycine site of the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor which also inhibits lipid peroxidation, protected CA1 pyramidal cells following transient forebrain ischemia. Global ischemia was produced in anesthetized gerbils by 5 min bilateral carotid artery occlusion; hippocampal injury was assessed seven days later. 7-Cl-thio-kynurenate (100 mg/kg, i.p. x 5) dramatically attenuated ischemia-induced CA1 cell loss (from 95 +/- 1 to 7 +/- 3%): the protection was associated with a delayed and marked reduction in the animals' temperature. However, when the gerbils were maintained normothermic for at least 360 min, 7-Cl-thio-kynurenate still provided partial (54 +/- 11%) but significant protection. No protection was observed when a reduction in temperature with a time course similar to that caused by 7-Cl-thio-kynurenate was experimentally induced in saline-treated ischemic animals. In situ hybridization revealed that expression of NMDA-R1, a subunit of the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor, was selectively reduced in CA1 seven days following global ischemia. In ischemic gerbils treated with 7-Cl-thio-kynurenate, protected CA1 cells were still able to express normal amounts of NMDA-R1 messenger RNA. Our results demonstrate that 7-Cl-thio-kynurenate, a glutamate receptor blocker possessing radical scavenger properties, is effective in reducing CA1 hippocampal damage following global ischemia in the gerbil. Since there is growing evidence that a positive feedback interaction between activation of glutamate receptors and free radical formation may be responsible for the generation of ischemic brain damage, drugs capable of interfering with both pathogenic mechanisms may be useful in preventing post-ischemic neuronal death.
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Affiliation(s)
- D E Pellegrini-Giampietro
- Department of Preclinical and Clinical Pharmacology Mario Aiazzi Mancini, University of Florence, Italy
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43
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Dhillon HS, Donaldson D, Dempsey RJ, Prasad MR. Regional levels of free fatty acids and Evans blue extravasation after experimental brain injury. J Neurotrauma 1994; 11:405-15. [PMID: 7837281 DOI: 10.1089/neu.1994.11.405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
The recently developed controlled cortical-impact (CCI) model of brain injury in rats serves as an excellent tool to understand some of the neurochemical mechanisms mediating the pathophysiology of traumatic brain injury. In this study, rats were subjected to lateral CCI brain injury of low-grade severity. Their brains were frozen in situ at various times after injury to measure regional levels of free fatty acids. Tissue total free fatty acids at the injury site within the left cortex were increased at 30 min, 2.5 h, and 24 h postinjury. In injured animals, increases in stearic and arachidonic acids were slightly greater than those in palmitic and oleic acids. The levels of total free fatty acids in the cortex adjacent to the injury site were also increased in injured animals at 2.5 h and 24 h after injury (p < 0.05). Only stearic and arachidonic acids were observed to be significantly increased (p < 0.05) in the adjacent cortex of injured animals at all times after injury. Although no significant increases in total free fatty acids were observed in the left hippocampus adjacent to the injury site, stearate and arachidonate concentrations were increased at 30 min and 2.5 h after injury (p < 0.05). Extravasation of Evans blue was found to be significantly increased in the ipsilateral cortex of injured animals at 30 min and 10 h after brain injury. These results indicate the degradation of membrane phospholipids and blood-brain barrier breakdown in the ipsilateral cortex after lateral CCI brain injury. These results also suggest that arachidonic acid and its metabolites may play a role as a mediator in the blood-brain barrier breakdown associated with cortical impact brain injury in rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- H S Dhillon
- Department of Surgery, University of Kentucky Medical Center, Lexington
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44
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Gao Y, Phillis JW. Atropine and cerebral ischemic injury in the Mongolian gerbil. GENERAL PHARMACOLOGY 1994; 25:725-7. [PMID: 7958734 DOI: 10.1016/0306-3623(94)90252-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
1. Cerebral ischemia of 5 min duration was induced in unanesthetized gerbils by bilateral occlusion of the carotid arteries. 2. The extent of cerebral damage was assessed by the elevation of motor activity in comparison with control animals and by a histological assessment of the extent of neuronal degeneration in the CA1 area of the hippocampus. 3. Atropine, an antagonist of ACh, at either a low (1 mg/kg) or a high (10 mg/kg) dose administered 15 min prior to the ischemic episode, did not confer protection against cerebral ischemic damage. 4. This finding suggests that ACh does not play a critical role in the generation of ischemia reperfusion injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Gao
- Department of Physiology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit 48201
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45
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Gao Y, Phillis JW. CGS 15943, an adenosine A2 receptor antagonist, reduces cerebral ischemic injury in the Mongolian gerbil. Life Sci 1994; 55:PL61-5. [PMID: 8007757 DOI: 10.1016/0024-3205(94)00889-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
The adenosine A2 receptor antagonist CGS 15943 (0.1 mg/kg, i.p.) was tested for cerebroprotective activity in a gerbil stroke model. CGS 15943 markedly reduced stroke injury assessed by locomotor activity monitoring and by histopathological measurement of hippocampal CA1 pyramidal cell injury. It is proposed that a previously demonstrated reduction in the ischemia/reperfusion-evoked release of excitotoxic amino acids following CGS 15943 administration could account for its cerebroprotective actions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Gao
- Department of Physiology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, Michigan 48201
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46
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POSTER COMMUNICATIONS. Br J Pharmacol 1993; 110:81P-184P. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1476-5381.1993.tb16292.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
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47
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Demura N, Mizukawa K, Ogawa N, Yamashita K, Kanazawa I. A cerebral ischemia model produced by injection of microspheres via the external carotid artery in freely moving rats. Neurosci Res 1993; 17:23-30. [PMID: 8414214 DOI: 10.1016/0168-0102(93)90025-l] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
We produced an improved microembolism model of cerebral focal ischemia by injection of 1000-2000 microspheres (50 +/- 5 microns diameter) via a tube retrogradely inserted into the right external carotid artery in freely moving rats. The group injected with 2000 spheres showed a much more severe mortality rate as well as neurological signs than did the 1000-sphere group. Brain water content of the 2000-sphere group was examined and found to show an increase from 4 to 24 h after embolization in the right hemisphere, indicating serious brain edema. Severe neurological signs and individual deaths by embolization were most likely related to the extent of development of brain edema. Examination of learning behavior by shuttle-box avoidance revealed partial but significant impairment of learning in the 1000-sphere group. Autoradiographic studies for muscarinic acetylcholine receptors and protein kinase C binding sites were conducted. Both these binding sites decreased in number, but protein kinase C seems to be more susceptible to ischemic injury than muscarinic acetylcholine receptors. The observation was considered to be closely related with an impairment of learning. The present study suggests that our microembolism model in freely moving rats is useful for investigations of the early phase and late phase of cerebral ischemia.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Demura
- Department of Neurology, University of Tsukuba, Japan
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48
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Krug M, Matthies R, Wagner M, Brödemann R. Non-opioid antitussives and methadone differentially influence hippocampal long-term potentiation in freely moving rats. Eur J Pharmacol 1993; 231:355-61. [PMID: 8449228 DOI: 10.1016/0014-2999(93)90110-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Long-term potentiation (LTP) of monosynaptically evoked field potentials (MEFP) in the dentate gyrus of freely moving rats following tetanization of the perforant pathway was investigated after peripheral application of substances which have been shown to influence NMDA receptor-mediated effects (dextromethorphan, methadone) as well as structurally related substances with similar antitussive effects (codeine, normethadone). The noncompetitive NMDA receptor antagonist MK 801 was also tested for comparison. Whereas under control conditions the field e.p.s.p. (excitatory postsynaptic potential) and the population spike of the MEFP were largely uninfluenced by these substances, different effects were seen after the induction of LTP. MK 801 (0.2 mg/kg i.p.) suppressed the induction of LTP of both the field e.p.s.p. and the population spike. Dextromethorphan (40 mg/kg i.p.) also prevented the potentiation of the field e.p.s.p. and the population spike, thus resembling MK 801 in its effect. Codeine (20 mg/kg i.p.), the levorotatory structural analogue of dextromethorphan had no effect. Methadone and normethadone did not influence the potentiation of the field e.p.s.p. or interfere with the induction of potentiation of the population spike but depressed its maintenance. The results obtained with MK 801 confirm those reported by others. Comparison of the effects of dextromethorphan with those of MK 801, suggests that there is a direct interaction with the NMDA receptor-ionophore complex. The effects of methadone and normethadone appear not to be linked to an interaction with opioid receptors, since naloxone did not influence the suppression of LTP caused by methadone. The possibility of interference with the NMDA receptor-ionophore complex is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Krug
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medical Academy Magdeburg, Germany
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49
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Phillis JW, Smith-Barbour M. The adenosine kinase inhibitor, 5-iodotubercidin, is not protective against cerebral ischemic injury in the gerbil. Life Sci 1993; 53:497-502. [PMID: 8341136 DOI: 10.1016/0024-3205(93)90701-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
5-Iodotubercidin is a potent inhibitor of the enzyme adenosine kinase. It has a recognized ability to enhance interstitial fluid levels of the cerebroprotective purine, adenosine, in the hypoxic brain, and an anticonvulsant action, which is thought to be a consequence of its ability to increase extracellular adenosine levels. 5-Iodotubercidin (1 mg/kg, i.p.) was therefore tested for its ability to reduce cerebral ischemic injury in a gerbil model. Unanesthetized gerbils were subjected to a 5 min period of bilateral carotid artery occlusion and then maintained in an environmental chamber at 30 degrees C for 5 hr to counteract the hypothermia-inducing action of 5-iodotubercidin. As estimated from the extent of the increases in locomotor activity and the magnitude of hippocampal CAI layer pyramidal cell loss, 5-iodotubercidin (1 mg/kg) failed to have a cerebroprotective effect against ischemic injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- J W Phillis
- Department of Physiology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI 48201
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50
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Lekieffre D, Ghribi O, Callebert J, Allix M, Plotkine M, Boulu RG. Inhibition of glutamate release in rat hippocampus by kynurenic acid does not protect CA1 cells from forebrain ischemia. Brain Res 1992; 592:333-7. [PMID: 1360314 DOI: 10.1016/0006-8993(92)91693-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
We assessed the effect of a broad spectrum glutamatergic receptor antagonist, kynurenic acid (500 mg/kg) on ischemia-induced hippocampal glutamate release and neuronal damage. Kynurenic acid significantly decreased glutamate release during ischemia but had no effect on the hippocampal lesion. Some protection was observed in the cortex and in the striatum. These data suggested that the extracellular accumulation of glutamate during forebrain ischemia does not play a major role in the hippocampus.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Lekieffre
- Laboratoire de Pharmacologie, Faculté des Sciences Pharmaceutiques et Biologiques, Université René Descartes, Paris, France
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