Localisation of functional muscarinic receptors in the rat cochlea: evidence for efferent presynaptic autoreceptors

Modulation of hair cell efferents

Outer hair cells (OHCs) amplify the sound-evoked motion of the basilar membrane to enhance acoustic sensitivity and frequency selectivity. Medial olivocochlear (MOC) efferents inhibit OHCs to reduce the sound-evoked response of cochlear afferent neurons. OHC inhibition occurs through the activation of postsynaptic α9α10 nicotinic receptors tightly coupled to calcium-dependent SK2 channels that hyperpolarize the hair cell. MOC neurons are cholinergic but a number of other neurotransmitters and neuromodulators have been proposed to participate in efferent transmission, with emerging evidence for both pre- and postsynaptic effects. Cochlear inhibition in vivo is maximized by repetitive activation of the efferents, reflecting facilitation and summation of transmitter release onto outer hair cells. This review summarizes recent studies on cellular and molecular mechanisms of cholinergic inhibition and the regulation of those molecular components, in particular the involvement of intracellular calcium. Facilitation at the efferent synapse is compared in a variety of animals, as well as other possible mechanisms of modulation of ACh release. These results suggest that short-term plasticity contributes to effective cholinergic inhibition of hair cells.

Muscarinic signaling in the cochlea: presynaptic and postsynaptic effects on efferent feedback and afferent excitability

Acetylcholine is the major neurotransmitter of the olivocochlear efferent system, which provides feedback to cochlear hair cells and sensory neurons. To study the role of cochlear muscarinic receptors, we studied receptor localization with immunohistochemistry and reverse transcription-PCR and measured olivocochlear function, cochlear responses, and histopathology in mice with targeted deletion of each of the five receptor subtypes. M2, M4, and M5 were detected in microdissected immature (postnatal days 10-13) inner hair cells and spiral ganglion cells but not outer hair cells. In the adult (6 weeks), the same transcripts were found in microdissected organ of Corti and spiral ganglion samples. M2 protein was found, by immunohistochemistry, in olivocochlear fibers in both outer and inner hair cell areas. M3 mRNA was amplified only from whole cochleas, and M1 message was never seen in wild-type ears. Auditory brainstem responses (ABRs) and distortion product otoacoustic emissions (DPOAEs) were unaffected by loss of Gq-coupled receptors (M1, M3, or M5), as were shock-evoked olivocochlear effects and vulnerability to acoustic injury. In contrast, loss of Gi-coupled receptors (M2 and/or M4) decreased neural responses without affecting DPOAEs (at low frequencies). This phenotype and the expression pattern are consistent with excitatory muscarinic signaling in cochlear sensory neurons. At high frequencies, both ABRs and DPOAEs were attenuated by loss of M2 and/or M4, and the vulnerability to acoustic injury was dramatically decreased. This aspect of the phenotype and the expression pattern are consistent with a presynaptic role for muscarinic autoreceptors in decreasing ACh release from olivocochlear terminals during high-level acoustic stimulation and suggest that muscarinic antagonists could enhance the resistance of the inner ear to noise-induced hearing loss.

Expression of canonical transient receptor potential channel (TRPC) 1-7 in the mouse inner ear

CONCLUSION

It is suggested that TRPCs play a functional role in the sensory cell transduction system in the inner ear.

OBJECTIVE

To study expression of TRPC 1-7 in the mouse inner ear.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The localization of TRPC 1-7 in the inner ear of CBA/J mice was investigated by immunohistochemistry.

RESULTS

TRPC immunoreactivity was observed generally in the inner ear, e.g. in the lateral wall of the cochlea, organ of Corti, spiral ganglion, vestibular end organs and vestibular ganglion. The immunofluorescent reaction to TRPC 3, 4, 5, and 7 in the stria vascularis was more intense than in the spiral prominence or spiral ligament. In the organ of Corti, TRPC immunoreactivity was observed in the outer hair cells (OHCs), inner hair cells (IHCs) and some supporting cells. TRPC 1-7 were all present in the ganglion cell body, TRPC 1 and 3 showing intense fluorescence, TRPC 2 and 7 moderate fluorescence and TRPC 4, 5 and 6 weak staining in ganglion fibres. In the vestibular end organs, vestibular hair cells (VHCs) showed immunoreactivity to all TRPCs. Nerve fibres in the subepithelial tissue were stained by TRPC 1, 3, 5, 6 and 7. Immunofluorescence to TRPC 1, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 was observed in the dark cells. In the vestibular ganglion, TRPC 1-7 were all present in the ganglion cell body. TRPC 1-4 and 7 elicited immunofluorescence in ganglion fibres.

Muscarinic receptor subtypes are differentially distributed in the rat cochlea

Five different genes encode the muscarinic acetylcholine receptors. The muscarinic receptor subtypes M1, M3, and M5 are typically coupled to activation of the Galpha(q/11)-phosphatidyl inositol pathway, whereas the M2 and M4 subtypes are typically linked to Galpha(i) and adenylyl cyclase inhibition. In order to localize muscarinic receptors in the rat cochlea, we applied polyclonal antibodies for subtypes M1, M2, M3, and M5, and monoclonal antibody for subtype M4 to paraffin sections. In the organ of Corti, outer hair cells exhibited strong immunoreactivity for M3 and weak immunoreactivity for M1. Deiters' cells were strongly immunoreactive to antibodies for the M1 and M2 subtypes, with weak staining observed for M3, and weaker yet for M5. Inner hair cells showed moderate immunoreactivity for the M1 subtype, weaker staining for the M5 subtype, and slight staining for the M3 subtype. Among the spiral ganglion neurons, weak to moderate immunoreactivity was detected for M3 and M5 subtypes and weak staining was observed for the M1 subtype. The efferent fibers of the intraganglionic spiral bundle were positive for M2 and M5. In the lateral wall, weak to moderate staining was detected for M5 in the stria vascularis corresponding in position to the basolateral extensions of marginal cells. Staining for M3 was observed associated with capillaries. Fibrocytes of the spiral ligament exhibited limited but selective subtype immunoreactivity. No immunoreactivity was detected in the cochlea for the M4 subtype. From the present findings we suggest that M3 is the primary muscarinic receptor subtype in outer hair cells mediating a postsynaptic response to the medial olivocochlear cholinergic efferent input. The muscarinic receptor subtypes M1, M3, and M5 appear to subserve the action of cholinergic lateral olivocochlear efferent stimulation on postsynaptic responses in type I afferents. Whether M1, M3, and M5 protein in inner hair cells indicates constitutive or vestigial expression remaining from development is unknown. M2 and M5 muscarinic receptors expressed presynaptically may modulate the efferent signal. Finally, expression by Deiters' cells of several muscarinic subtypes raises the possibility that cholinergic efferents couple to these non-sensory cells through muscarinic receptors.

Noise priming and the effects of different cochlear centrifugal pathways on loud-sound-induced hearing loss

Priming/conditioning the cochlea with moderately loud sound can reduce damage caused by subsequent loud sound. This study examined immediate effects of short-term priming with monaural broadband noise on temporary threshold shifts (TTSs) in hearing caused by a subsequent loud high-frequency tone and the role of centrifugal olivocochlear pathways. Priming caused delay-dependent changes in tone-induced TTSs, particularly or only at frequencies higher than the peak tone-affected frequency, through two general effects: a short-lasting increase in cochlear susceptibility to loud sound and longer-lasting complex end effects of centrifugal pathways. The results indicated the following points. Priming noise had "pure" cochlear effects, outlasting its presentation and declining with delay, that exacerbated tone-induced TTSs at frequencies higher than the peak tone-affected frequency. The centrifugal uncrossed medial olivocochlear system (UMOCS) could prevent this noise exacerbation and as this noise effect declined, could even reduce tone-induced TTSs below those to the unprimed tone. For longer delays, when priming noise no longer had any exacerbative "pure" cochlear effects on TTSs, UMOCS exacerbated TTSs above those to the unprimed tone. The crossed medial olivocochlear system (CMOCS) appeared to show a gradual "build-up" of effects postpriming. A parallel study showed it exercised no end effect on TTSs when noise and tone were concurrent. With priming, CMOCS effects were observed. For the shortest priming delay, the CMOCS blocked a UMOCS effect preventing noise exacerbation of tone-induced TTSs. For longer delays, CMOCS end effects, when present, reduced tone-induced TTSs below those to the unprimed tone. The CMOCS may oscillate between producing these effects and exerting no end-effect. With increasing delay CMOCS protection occurred in a greater proportion of animals. Finally, with a delay of 600 s between primer and loud tone, all these systems appeared to have reset to normal so that TTSs were similar to those in the unprimed condition. Thus the effects of short-term priming are not simple and do not suggest that centrifugal pathways act automatically as a protective system during such priming.

Heterogeneity of phospholipase C in the cochlea of the guinea pig

In the present study, we investigated the presence of phosphatidylinositol-specific phospholipase C (PLC) isoforms in the cochlea of the guinea pig using Western blot analysis and immunocytochemistry. By Western blotting, PLCbeta1 and delta1 were expressed in the cochlear sensory epithelia (CSE) and PLCbeta1, gamma1 and delta1 were expressed in the cochlear lateral wall. By immunocytochemistry of the CSE, PLCbeta1-like immunoreactivity was mainly expressed in the outer hair cells (OHCs), but not in the inner hair cells (IHCs). PLCgamma1 and delta1 were expressed neither in the OHCs nor in the IHCs. In the cochlear lateral wall, PLCbeta1, delta1 and gamma1 were expressed in the stria vascularis and the spiral ligament. In addition, PLCbeta1, delta1 and gamma1 were also present in type I spiral ganglion cells. Based on these results, we discussed the function of these PLC isoforms in the cochlea.

The effects of efferent activation on the acoustically and electrically evoked otoacoustic emission

The effects of efferent activation on the otoacoustic emission were measured in anesthetized guinea pigs. The otoacoustic emission (2F(1)-F(2)) was evoked by the conventional method of presenting either two continuous tones or a sinusoidal current to the round window (RW) of the cochlea. The efferent effects on the acoustically evoked emission are greatest at low stimulus levels and least for high levels. The efferent effects on the electrically evoked emission (EEOAE) are relatively constant across current levels. In each case, efferent activation resulted in an initial large reduction in the emission amplitude followed by a smaller and more constant reduction. Strychnine eliminated the efferent effects independent of the method of emission activation. Strychnine had no effect on the EEOAE, suggesting that the RW current did not evoke a local efferent effect. Slow versus fast efferent effects were observed in the recovery of the emission amplitude at the termination of efferent activation. Only a fast recovery in the emission amplitude was observed for stimuli below 10 kHz while the amplitude recovery had fast and slow components for stimuli presented above 10 kHz.

Cyclic GMP and outer hair cell electromotility

The aim of this study is to examine the effect of phosphorylation pathways on the electrically evoked fast motile response of isolated outer hair cells (OHCs). Transcellular electrical stimulation was applied in the microchamber to guinea pig OHCs and motility was measured before and after drug application. Forskolin (adenylate cyclase activator), phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA, protein kinase C activator) and dibutyryl 3',5'-cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP agonist) were studied. As controls, L15 medium and dimethyl-sulfoxide (DMSO) were used. In each group, 12 cells were measured. Forskolin and PMA were dissolved in 0.1% DMSO to render them membrane permeable. DMSO by itself caused a statistically significant electromotility magnitude decrease. Forskolin and PMA could not reverse the motility decrease due to DMSO, the effects seen in their presence were the same as observed with DMSO alone. Thus, neither 3',5'-cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase nor calcium/phospholipid-dependent protein kinase appear to have modulatory effects on electromotility. Dibutyryl cGMP (DBcGMP), in concentrations of 200 microM, elicited a significant electromotility magnitude increase. The DBcGMP effect could be inhibited by co-application of 200 microM DBcGMP and 100 microM 8-Rp-pCPT-cGMPS (8-4-chlorophenylthio-guanosine 3',5'-cyclic monophosphothioate, Rp isomer, a cGMP antagonist). Our results suggest that OHC electromotility is modulated by a cGMP-dependent pathway.

Autoradiographic demonstration of quinuclidinyl benzilate binding sites in the vestibular organs of the gerbil

Gerbil vestibular tissues were isolated by microdissection and incubated in vitro with 3H-quinuclidinyl benzilate (3H-QNB). Control tissues were incubated in medium containing unlabeled atropine to differentiate non-specific from specific binding. Autoradiographic grain densities were determined by morphometric techniques and evaluated by two-tailed t-test. The label densities of sensory epithelia from experimental preparations of ampulla, utricle and saccule were found to be significantly higher than those in the adjacent endolymphatic compartment and also higher than those of adjacent stromal tissue comprising connective tissue, nerve fibers and capillaries. In contrast, no tissue region in atropine controls showed label density significantly above that of the endolymphatic compartment. Label density of ampullar sensory epithelium incubated with 3H-QNB alone was significantly higher than that of sensory epithelium from utricle or saccule. Grain density was greater in the peripheral regions of the ampullar crista compared to the vertex. Appreciable label was also present in nerve bundles beneath the sensory epithelium of the ampulla. The current study demonstrates the existence of putative muscarinic neurotransmitter/neuromodulator receptor sites in mammalian vestibular sense organs at locations corresponding to efferent innervation, with particularly significant concentrations in the ampulla.

Cholinergic modulation of extracellular ATP-induced cytoplasmic calcium concentrations in cochlear outer hair cells

Outer hair cells (OHC) of the mammalian cochlea modulate the inner hair cell (IHC) mechanoelectrical transduction of sound. They are contacted by synapsing efferent neurons from the CNS, their main efferent neurotransmitter being acetylcholine (ACh). OHC function and in particular their control of [Ca2+]i is highly important and is modulated by ACh and also by other substances including extracellular (EC) ATP. OHC carry at their efferent synapse a not yet completely identified neuronal type of ionotropic ACh receptor (AChR), with an unusual pharmacology, which is, in vivo and in vitro, reversibly blocked by alpha-bungarotoxin (alpha-bgtx). The AChR mediates a fast influx of Ca2+ into OHC which, in turn, activates a closeby located outwardly-directed Ca(2+)-dependent K(+)-channel, thus shortly hyperpolarizing the cell. A cloned homomeric alpha 9 nAChR mimicks the function and pharmacology of this receptor. We here report results from a study designed to observe only slower effects triggered by EC ATP and the ACh-AChR system. EC presence of ATP at OHC increases [Ca2+]i by activating both P2x and P2y purinoceptors and also by indirect activation of OHC L-type Ca(2+)-channels. The L-type channel activation is responsible for a large part of the [Ca2+]i increase. Simultaneous EC presence of ACh and ATP at OHC was found to depress ATP-induced effects on OHC [Ca2+]i, an effect that is completely blocked in the presence of alpha-bgtx. Our observations suggest that the ACh-AChR system is involved in the modulation of the observed EC ATP-triggered events; possibly the OHC AChR is able to act both in its well known rapid ionotropic way, but also, perhaps after modification in a slower, metabotropic way interfering with the EC ATP-induced [Ca2+]i increase.

Aminoglycoside ototoxicity and the medial efferent system: II. Comparison of acute effects of different antibiotics

Gentamicin (GM) has been shown to reversibly reduce the ability of contralateral noise to suppress ipsilateral cochlear activity, in a dose-dependent manner. However, during chronic administration of lower doses (60 mg/kg) the involvement of medial efferents could not be demonstrated. The purposes of the present study were to determine whether other aminoglycosides would display the same acute effects as GM and whether there was any correlation between their specificity and degree of cochlear and vestibular toxicity and their potency of blockade of the medial efferent system. Thus, we observed changes in ipsilateral ensemble background activity (EBA) of the VIIIth nerve without and with contralateral low level (55 dB SPL) broadband noise stimulation, in awake guinea pigs (GPs), before and after one single high-dose intramuscular injection of different aminoglycoside antibiotics (AAs) (gentamicin, amikacin, neomycin, netilmicin, streptomycin, tobramycin). For comparison, the effects of strychnine, a known antagonist of the efferent transmission and of cisplatin, an antineoplastic agent with cochleotoxic properties were also studied. Netilmicin displayed blocking properties similar to GM, although less pronounced, while amikacin and neomycin had no effect on medial efferent function. With tobramycin and streptomycin a decrease in suppression was usually associated with a reduction of the EBA measured without acoustic stimulation. However, with cisplatin, suppression was still effective when EBA was severely decreased. We could not observe specific effects of strychnine on medial efferent function. In conclusion, no correlation was found between specificity and degree of AA ototoxicity and their action on the medial efferent system.

Pre- and postsynaptic M3 muscarinic receptor mRNAs in the rodent peripheral auditory system

The medial and lateral efferent innervations originate from distinct parts of the superior olivary complex. Both use acetylcholine, respectively, to modulate the activity of outer hair cells (OHC), and spiral ganglion neurons (SGN) which are postsynaptic to the inner hair cells (IHC). Besides predominantly activating nicotinic receptors, acetylcholine recognizes muscarinic M3 receptors, whose the role(s) and cellular localization(s) are not yet firmly established. We used reverse transcription and polymerase chain reaction to amplify the M3 receptor cDNA in the rat and guinea pig organ of Corti and spiral ganglion. Then, we localized the M3 receptor mRNAs in cochleas and superior olivary complex of both species. The M3 receptor cDNA was amplified from samples of brain, organ of Corti and spiral ganglion. Indeed, its corresponding mRNA was localized in SGNs, OHCs and IHCs. However, in the apical turns, OHCs were often found unlabeled. In the superior olivary complex, M3 mRNAs were colocalized with choline acetyltransferase mRNAs in neurons of the lateral superior olive and ventral nucleus of the trapezoid body. These results suggest that the M3 receptor-induced inositol phosphate formation described in previous studies [21] takes place in both postsynaptic (SGNs, OHCs) and presynaptic components of efferent cochlear synapses, and in cells that are not contacted by efferents in the adult cochlea (IHCs).

Chemical synaptic transmission in the cochlea

The last two decades have witnessed major progress in the understanding of cochlear mechanical functioning, and in the emergence of cochlear neurochemistry and neuropharmacology. Recent models describe active processes within the cochlea that amplify and sharpen the mechanical response to sound. Although it is widely accepted that outer hair cells (OHCs) contribute to these processes, the nature of the medial efferent influence on cochlear mechanics needs further clarification. Acetylcholine (ACh) is the major transmitter released onto OHCs during the stimulation of these efferents. The inhibitory influence of this system is mediated by post- and presynaptic nicontinic and muscarinic receptors and the role of other neuroactive substances [gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP), adenosine 5'-triphosphate (ATP) or nitric oxide (NO)] remains to be determined. The inner hair cells (IHCs) that transduce the mechanical displacements into neural activity, release glutamate on receptor-activated channels of AMPA, kainate, and NMDA types. This synapse is in turn controlled and/or regulated by the lateral efferents containing a cocktail of neuroactive substances (ACh, GABA, dopamine, enkephalins, dynorphin, CGRP). This glutamatergic nature of the IHCs is responsible for the acute destruction of the nerve endings and subsequently for neuronal death, damage usually described in various cochlear diseases (noise-induced hearing losses, neural presbycusis and certain forms of sudden deafness or peripheral tinnitus). These pathologies also include a regrowth of new dendritic processes by surviving neurons up to IHCs. Understanding the subtle molecular mechanisms which underly the control of neuronal excitability, synaptic plasticity and neuronal death in cochlear function and disease is a very important issue for the development of future therapies.

Cell-specific expression of the alpha 9 n-ACh receptor subunit in auditory hair cells revealed by single-cell RT-PCR

Single-cell reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction was carried out in three different cell types from the organ of Corti of the four-day old rat. For this purpose, pieces of the organ of Corti were mounted under a differential-interference contrast video microscope. Two different mounting configurations were used to allow imaging of cells from two almost orthogonal angles. This method afforded unequivocal recognition of various cell types in the vital tissue, and extraction of nucleus and cytoplasm of specified individual cells with a patch pipette. Messenger RNA encoding the alpha 9 acetylcholine (ACh) receptor subunit was detected and sequenced from individual outer hair cells and inner hair cells, but was not found in Deiters' cells. The identical Deiters' cells were positive for a P2x receptor subunit. This indicates cell-specific expression of the alpha 9 subunit in inner hair cells and outer hair cells and supports the hypothesis that this subunit contributes to calcium (Ca2+) permeable ionotropic ACh receptors (ACh-R). ACh-dependent Ca2+ concentration increase has been observed in both outer hair cells and inner hair cells.

Ligand-binding properties of an unusual nicotinic acetylcholine receptor subtype on isolated outer hair cells from guinea pig cochlea

Acetylcholine receptors on isolated guinea pig cochlear outer hair cells (OHC) were characterized by radioligand binding. Equilibrium binding of [125I]alpha-bungarotoxin revealed a KD of 62 +/- 2 nM, Bmax = 7.2 +/- 1.8 x 10(7) binding sites/OHC, and a slowly reversible dissociation rate constant, kappa-1 = 2.2 +/- 0.01 x 10(-4) min-1. L-[3H]Nicotine bound reversibly (estimated KD approximately 230 nM and Bmax approximately 5 x 10(7)) with kinetic rate constants of association kappa-1 = 6.2 +/- 0.06 x 10(4) min-1 nM-1 and dissociation kappa-1 = 0.23 +/- 0.003 min-1. [3H]Strychnine bound to OHC with a KD of 35 +/- 6 nM and Bmax = 2.6 +/- 0.5 x 10(7), and binding increased 3-4 fold after membrane depolarization with 56.2 mM [K+], suggesting additional binding sites. Binding, seen only at > nM concentrations, of [3H]3-quinuclidinyl benzilate (KD = 11.5 +/- 5 nM; Bmax = 2.5 +/- 0.6 x 10(6)) was competitively inhibited by the muscarinic antagonists atropine and 4-DAMP (IC50 of 6.1 +/- 0.5 and 6.5 +/- 0.4 nM). The OHC receptor is thus an atypical nicotinic acetylcholine receptor subtype with unusual pharmacological properties.

Lateral and medial efferents: a double neurochemical mechanism to protect and regulate inner and outer hair cell function in the cochlea

In the mammalian cochlea, the two types of hair cells drastically differ in their anatomy and physiology. Each system receives a specific efferent control originating in the brainstem superior olivary complex. Inner hair cells are connected to the afferent type I ganglion neurons (comprising 95% of the auditory nerve) which postsynaptically receive the input of the lateral efferents. On the other hand, outer hair cells, whose electromotile properties are responsible for the active mechanism, are directly under medial efferent control. Neurochemically, both types of efferents are also well distinguished. The present paper reviews the efferent neurochemistry and pharmacology, with an emphasis on the protective roles of each system on cochlear function. The role of lateral efferent neurotransmitters such as enkephalins and dopamine in protecting the auditory nerve dendrites against excessive noise and/or excitotoxicity is especially addressed. The cholinergic medial efferents synapsing with the outer hair cells play a role in altering and/or modulating cochlear micromechanics. They could also be involved in a potentiating effect on aminoglycoside ototoxicity.

Effects of ototoxins on quinuclidinyl benzylate binding in the rat cochlea

Ototoxins inhibit the muscarinic receptor-activated inositol phosphate synthesis in the rat cochlea. In order to study this inhibitory mechanism, we investigated the effects of the ototoxins ethacrynate, cisplatin, HgCl2 and neomycin on [3H]quinuclidinyl benzylate binding to muscarinic receptors in adult and 12-day-old rat cochleas. The results are similar whatever the age: at concentrations that inhibit the inositol phosphate synthesis, ethacrynate is without effect. Neomycin only reduces [3H]quinuclidinyl benzylate binding at concentrations in the millimolar range. Cisplatin and HgCl2 block the binding in a dose-dependent way. These results suggest that the block of the transduction system by cisplatin and HgCl2 is due to direct interactions with muscarinic binding sites. Moreover, considering these data together with previous results, ethacrynate and neomycin may affect the phosphoinositide signalling pathway at targets including phosphoinositides and G proteins.

In vitro pharmacologic characterization of a cholinergic receptor on outer hair cells

Acetylcholine (ACh) is the major neurotransmitter released from the efferent fibers in the cochlea onto the outer hair cells (OHCs). The type of ACh receptor on OHCs and the events subsequent to receptor activation are unclear. Therefore we studied the effect of agonists and antagonists of the ACh receptor on isolated OHCs from the guinea pig. OHCs were recorded from in whole cell voltage and current clamp configuration. ACh induced an increase in outward K+ current (IACh) which hyperpolarized the OHCs. No desensitization to ACh application was observed. Cs+ replaced K+ in carrying the IACh. The IACh is Ca(2+)-dependent, time and voltage sensitive, and different from the IKCa induced by depolarization of the membrane potential. When tested at 100 microM, several agonists also induced outward current responses (acetylcholine > suberyldicholine > or = carbachol > DMPP) whereas nicotine, cytisine and muscarine did not. The IACh response to 10 microM ACh was blocked by low concentrations of traditional and non-traditional-nicotinic antagonists (strychnine > curare > bicuculline > alpha-bungarotoxin > thimethaphan) and by higher concentrations of muscarinic antagonists (atropine > 4-DAMP > AF-DX 116 > pirenzepine). Pharmacologically, the ACh receptor on OHCs is nicotinic.

A nicotinic-like receptor mediates suppression of distortion product otoacoustic emissions by contralateral sound

The purpose of this investigation was to provide in vivo pharmacologic characterization of a cholinergic receptor mediating the suppressive effects of medial olivocochlear (MOC) efferent activation. MOC neurons were activated by contralateral sound and the resulting suppression of ipsilateral distortion product otoacoustic emissions (DPOAEs) was monitored before and after intracochlear perfusions of cholinergic antagonists. Results revealed a dose-dependent blockade of contralateral suppression of DPOAEs by a wide variety of nicotinic and muscarinic cholinergic receptor antagonists, as well as by non-traditional antagonists of cholinergic activity. The nicotinic antagonists, alpha-bungarotoxin, curare and kappa-bungarotoxin, and the glycine antagonist, strychnine, blocked contralateral suppression at nanomolar concentrations and demonstrated similar potencies. IC50 values were 2.38 x 10(-7), 2.79 x 10(-7), 3.81 x 10(-7) and 2.96 x 10(-7) M, respectively. These agents were followed in potency by the nicotinic antagonist, trimethaphan (1.75 x 10(-6) M), the M3 muscarinic antagonist, 4-DAMP (1.88 x 10(-6) M) and the GABAA antagonist, bicuculline (2.39 x 10(-6) M). Increasingly greater concentrations of the muscarinic antagonists, atropine (9.52 x 10(-6) M), AF-DX 116 (2.72 x 10(-5) M) and pirenzepine (8.24 x 10(-4) M) were necessary to block contralateral suppression of DPOAEs. The in vivo pharmacology of this putative outer hair cell cholinergic receptor suggests that it may be a member of the nicotinic family of receptors.