An examination of potential indices of fasting time in commercially slaughtered sheep

Welfare of cattle during transport

In the framework of its Farm to Fork Strategy, the Commission is undertaking a comprehensive evaluation of the animal welfare legislation. The present Opinion deals with protection of cattle (including calves) during transport. Welfare of cattle during transport by road is the main focus, but other means of transport are also covered. Current practices related to transport of cattle during the different stages (preparation, loading/unloading, transit and journey breaks) are described. Overall, 11 welfare consequences were identified as being highly relevant for the welfare of cattle during transport based on severity, duration and frequency of occurrence: group stress, handling stress, heat stress, injuries, motion stress, prolonged hunger, prolonged thirst, respiratory disorders, restriction of movement, resting problems and sensory overstimulation. These welfare consequences and their animal-based measures are described. A variety of hazards, mainly relating to inexperienced/untrained handlers, inappropriate handling, structural deficiencies of vehicles and facilities, poor driving conditions, unfavourable microclimatic and environmental conditions, and poor husbandry practices leading to these welfare consequences were identified. The Opinion contains general and specific conclusions relating to the different stages of transport for cattle. Recommendations to prevent hazards and to correct or mitigate welfare consequences have been developed. Recommendations were also developed to define quantitative thresholds for microclimatic conditions within the means of transport and spatial thresholds (minimum space allowance). The development of welfare consequences over time was assessed in relation to maximum journey duration. The Opinion covers specific animal transport scenarios identified by the European Commission relating to transport of unweaned calves, cull cows, the export of cattle by livestock vessels, the export of cattle by road, roll-on-roll-off ferries and 'special health status animals', and lists welfare concerns associated with these.

Welfare of small ruminants during transport

In the framework of its Farm to Fork Strategy, the Commission is undertaking a comprehensive evaluation of animal welfare legislation. The present Opinion deals with the protection of small ruminants (sheep and goats) during transport. The main focus is on welfare of sheep during transport by road but other means of transport and concerns for welfare of goats during transport are also covered. Current practices related to transport of sheep during the different stages (preparation, loading and unloading, transit and journey breaks) are described. Overall, 11 welfare consequences were identified as being highly relevant for the welfare of sheep during transport based on severity, duration and frequency of occurrence: group stress, handling stress, heat stress, injuries, motion stress, predation stress, prolonged hunger, prolonged thirst, restriction of movement, resting problems and sensory overstimulation. These welfare consequences and their animal-based measures are described. A wide variety of hazards, mainly relating to inappropriate or aggressive handling of animals, structural deficiencies of vehicles and facilities, unfavourable microclimatic and environmental conditions and poor husbandry practices, leading to these welfare consequences were identified. The Opinion contains general and specific conclusions in relation to the different stages of transport. Recommendations to prevent hazards and to correct or mitigate welfare consequences have been developed. Recommendations were also developed to define quantitative thresholds for microclimatic conditions within the means of transport and spatial thresholds (minimum space allowance). The development of welfare consequences over time were assessed in relation to maximum journey time. The Opinion covers specific animal transport scenarios identified by the European Commission relating to the export of sheep by livestock vessels, export of sheep by road, roll-on-roll-off vessels and 'special health status animals', and lists welfare concerns associated with these.

Blood collection from dairy calves at exsanguination post-slaughter yields similar biochemical and packed cell volume measurements compared with in vivo collection during lairage

Blood collection at exsanguination is a method of collecting samples at abattoirs which itself has no effect on animal welfare, compared with collection prior to stunning. However, there is the potential for artefact to affect measurements. It was hypothesised that, for most blood analytes measured, the differences between lairage and exsanguination measurements would be minimal, except for creatine kinase, which was expected be higher in exsanguination samples. Fifty-nine male dairy calves approximately 5-10 days old were sampled prior to slaughter, and again during exsanguination after stunning. Each sample was analysed for packed cell volume, serum urea, beta-hydroxybutyrate, gamma-glutamyl transferase, total protein, glucose and creatine kinase concentrations. Exsanguination and lairage blood results were compared using a paired t-test. There were no significant differences between the measurements taken at exsanguination compared with lairage for packed cell volume, urea and beta-hydroxybutyrate. Glucose concentrations were higher in exsanguination samples, and total protein concentrations were lower, but for both of these analytes the differences were clinically small. Gamma-glutamyl transferase activity was lower in exsanguination samples compared with lairage samples. Creatine kinase activity was higher in exsanguination samples. It was concluded that collecting blood at exsanguination is a valid method for collecting samples for measurement of packed cell volume, urea, and beta-hydroxybutyrate in calves. Glucose and total protein can also yield useful measurements in these samples, though care needs to be taken with interpretation given the minor differences between exsanguination and lairage measurements. Exsanguination samples may be unsuitable for creatine kinase and gamma-glutamyl transferase measurement.

Investigation of biochemical and physiological parameters of the newborn Saiga antelope (Saiga tatarica) in Gansu Province, China

BACKGROUND

The Saiga antelope (Saiga tatarica) is a critically endangered species, and there has been limited success in restoring the population by captive breeding. This study assessed the biochemical and physiological parameters of newborn Saiga antelope to provide reference information that can be used to evaluate their health. Comparisons have been made with parameters for horses and closely related members of the Bovidae family but there are no reference values for the newborn Saiga antelope.

METHODS

Biochemical and physiological parameters were measured in 61 animals. An automatic analyzer (Hitachi Ltd. 7180 Serial, Tokyo, Japan) was used to analyze the biochemical parameters, while the Coulter counter (Model ZK) was used to analyze the physiological parameters.

RESULTS

The results showed that the biochemical and physiological parameters differ considerably in range. The evaluation of parameters stratified by sex showed differences. Triglyceride and LDL cholesterol concentrations among male animals were significantly higher than those in female animals, while the creatine kinase concentrations were significantly higher in females than in males. Comparing this study's results with published data for horses showed many similarities and some differences. Cholesterol, magnesium and glucose levels were similar between Saiga antelope and horses, while albumin and hematocrit levels in Saiga antelope differed from the reference values in horses.

CONCLUSION

The study has shown that horses and even closely related members of the Bovidae family are not suitable references when evaluating the biochemical and physiological properties of newborn Saiga antelope. These animals have unique stressors and warrant further study to inform efforts pertaining to their care and the future sustainability of the species.

Feed deprivation in Merino and Terminal sired lambs: (2) the metabolic response under pre-slaughter conditions and impact on meat quality and carcass yield

Under current Australian industry pre-slaughter guidelines, lambs may be off feed for up to 48 h before slaughter. The purpose of this study was to examine what proportion of circulating metabolites at slaughter are due to stress and feed deprivation and if this response differs between Merino and Terminal genotypes. In addition the effect of feed deprivation on carcass weight and meat quality was examined. Jugular blood samples were collected from 88 Merino and Terminal sired lambs at rest and at slaughter following 24, 36 and 48 h of feed deprivation and plasma analysed for glucose, lactate, non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA) and β-hydroxybutyrate (BHOB). From the same carcasses hot carcass weight (HCWT) were measured as well as a suite of meat quality traits measured such as M. longissimus lumborum (loin) and M. semitendinosus pH at 24 h postmortem. Loin samples were also analysed for intramuscular fat content and Warner-Bratzer Shear Force. Merino sired lambs had a higher NEFA response compared to Terminal sired lambs at slaughter after 24, 36 and 48 h of feed deprivation, with NEFA levels up to 35% higher than previously reported in the same animals at rest in animal house conditions, whereas BHOB response to feed deprivation was not affected by sire type (P>0.05) and similar to previously reported at rest. In addition to the metabolic effects, increasing feed deprivation from 36 h was associated with a 3% reduction in HCWT and dressing percentage as well as causing increased ultimate pH in the M. semitendinosus in Merino sired lambs. Findings from this study demonstrate that Merino and Terminal sired lambs differ in their metabolic response to feed deprivation under commercial slaughter conditions. In addition, commercial feed deprivation appears to have a negative effect on ultimate pH and carcass weight and warrants further investigation.

The effects of depriving feed to facilitate transport and slaughter in sheep--a case study of cull ewes held off pasture for different periods

AIM

To determine the ability of sheep to mobilise their body reserves after being deprived of feed prior to transport for slaughter.

METHODS

A total of 240 3- and 4-year-old cull ewes were held off pasture for 0, 9, 18 or 30 hours (n=60 per group) then transported 1 hour by road, unloaded and washed, held in lairage for 3 hours then slaughtered. Blood samples were collected from a subsample of 60 unfasted ewes 1 week earlier, and from all ewes at exsanguination to determine concentrations of serum metabolites indicative of adaptation to fasting. In addition, several attributes of carcass quality were measured.

RESULTS

At slaughter, increased time off pasture prior to transport resulted in no change in glucose concentrations in serum (p=0.140). There were differences (p<0.001) between the group fasted for 30 compared with 0 hours in mean concentrations of free fatty acids (0.98 (SD 0.32) vs. 0.58 (SD 0.23) mmol/L), β-hydroxybutyrate (0.69 (SD 0.17) vs. 0.42 (SD 0.11) mmol/L), triglycerides (0.29 (min 0.13, max 0.83) vs. 0.22 (min 0.06, max 0.96) mmol/L) and urea (10.17 (SD 1.80) vs. 6.94 (SD 2.03) mmol/L). Different periods of feed deprivation had no effect (p>0.05) on carcass weights (mean 22.7, min 13.2, max 32.9 kg) or dressing out percentages (mean 40.9, min 27, max 49%). Meat ultimate pH was unaffected (p>0.05) by the period of feed deprivation but meat became darker (p<0.05) and had reduced redness (p<0.001) with increasing time off feed.

CONCLUSIONS

The results suggest that sheep in variable body condition adapted to the periods of feed deprivation by mobilising their energy reserves without any evidence of metabolic depletion (e.g. depleted blood glucose or high meat pH). However, being deprived of feed they probably experience a degree of hunger.

Preslaughter diet management in sheep and goats: effects on physiological responses and microbial loads on skin and carcass

Sixteen crossbred buck goats (Kiko x Spanish; BW = 32.8 kg) and wether sheep (Dorset x Suffolk; BW = 39.9 kg) were used to determine the effect of preslaughter diet and feed deprivation time (FDT) on physiological responses and microbial loads on skin and carcasses. Experimental animals were fed either a concentrate (CD) or a hay diet (HD) for 4 d and then deprived of feed for either 12-h or 24-h before slaughter. Blood samples were collected for plasma cortisol and blood metabolite analyses. Longisimus muscle (LM) pH was measured. Skin and carcass swabs were obtained to assess microbial loads. Plasma creatine kinase activity (863.9 and 571.7 ± 95.21 IU) and non-esterified fatty acid concentrations (1,056.1 and 589.8 ± 105.01 mEq/L) were different (P < 0.05) between sheep and goats. Species and diet treatments had significant effects on the ultimate pH of LM. Pre-holding total coliform (TCC) and aerobic plate counts (APC) of skin were significantly different between species. Goats had lower (P < 0.05) TCC (2.1 vs. 3.0 log₁₀ CFU/cm²) and APC (8.2 vs. 8.5 log₁₀ CFU/cm²) counts in the skin compared to sheep. Preslaughter skin E. coli counts and TCC were different (P < 0.05) between species. Goats had lower (P < 0.05) counts of E. coli (2.2 vs. 2.9 log₁₀ CFU/cm²) and TCC (2.3 vs. 3.0 log₁₀ CFU/cm²) in the skin compared with those in sheep. Diet, species, and FDT had no effect (P > 0.05) on E. coli and TCC in carcass swab samples. The APC of carcass swab samples were only affected (P < 0.05) by the FDT. The results indicated that preslaughter dietary management had no significant changes on hormone and blood metabolite concentrations and sheep might be more prone for fecal contamination than goats in the holding pens at abattoir.

Balancing consumer and societal requirements for sheep meat production: an Australasian perspective

Although there has been a decline in sheep numbers in Australia and New Zealand, both countries remain significant producers and exporters of sheep meat. The ongoing demand for more sustainable and ethical animal farming systems and practices requires sheep production industries to be both vigilant and responsive to consumer and the broader societal needs. Demonstration of continuous improvement in animal welfare is paramount and the welfare risks and challenges confronting Australasian sheep industries now and into the future are discussed.

Current practices on sheep and beef farms in New Zealand for depriving sheep of feed prior to transport for slaughter

AIM

To assess current practices on sheep and beef farms that deprive sheep of feed prior to transport to facilitate effluent management and processing at slaughter.

METHODS

A national telephone survey of 122 sheep and 346 sheep and beef farmers was conducted in March and April 2010. They were asked how long sheep were held off green feed prior to transport and why, what environment the sheep were held in, and if that period ever varied.

RESULTS

Of the 468 respondents, 303 (65%) removed their sheep from green feed 3-12 h before transport for slaughter, with longer periods reported in the South than North Island. The main reasons given were to reduce the volume of effluent for transport operators (n=174), to prevent wool staining during transport (n=173), and that sheep were better suited to load and travel empty (n=171). Water was provided during feed deprivation by 313 farmers. The period of food deprivation could be altered in response to requirements of transporters and processors, the weather, and by the class of stock involved, although 115/468 (25%) farmers stated that they never changed their normal protocol.

CONCLUSIONS

Amongst survey respondents, common practices compared favourably with recommendations to reduce effluent during transportation. Previous studies have investigated the effects of fasting lambs whilst in lairage prior to slaughter and focussed on carcass quality such as carcass weight and tenderness. Changes in liveweight and gastrointestinal tract contents suggest feed deprivation reduces the risk of defaecation and urination contributing to the accumulation of effluent during transport and of carcass contamination during processing. However, the point at which that risk is acceptable to transport and processing is unclear. Fasting results in physiological changes indicative of altered metabolism but it is not clear when those changes are indicative of adaptation to food deprivation or metabolic depletion and compromised welfare. There may be opportunities to improve the logistics of livestock preparation, transport and processing.

Cryptosporidium and Giardia associated with reduced lamb carcase productivity

On two extensive sheep farms in southern Western Australia, 111 (Farm A) and 124 (Farm B) female crossbred lambs (2-6 weeks old) were randomly selected and individually identified using ear tags (a numbered tag and radio-frequency tag) at marking. On five separate occasions, faecal samples were collected and live weight, body condition score (BCS), faecal consistency score (FCS), breech fleece faecal soiling score and faecal dry matter percentage (DM%) were recorded. Lamb hot carcase weight (HCW) and dressing percentage were measured at slaughter. Faecal samples were screened by PCR for Cryptosporidium (18S rRNA, actin and 60 kDa glycoprotein [gp60] loci), Giardia duodenalis (glutamate dehydrogenase [gdh] and triosephosphate isomerise [tpi]) and Campylobacter jejuni (16S rRNA). Observation of Eimeria oocysts and faecal worm egg counts (WECs) were performed using a modified McMaster technique. The WECs were adjusted for FCS for analyses. Faecal samples were screened for patent strongylid infections using PCR (specifically ITS-2 nuclear ribosomal DNA for Teladorsagia circumcincta, Trichostrongylus spp. and Haemonchus contortus). Lambs positive for Cryptosporidium at least once had lighter HCWs by 1.25 kg (6.6%) (P=0.029) and 1.46 kg (9.7%) (P<0.001) compared to lambs never positive for Cryptosporidium for Farms A and B respectively. Similarly, dressing percentages were 1.7% (P=0.022) and 1.9% (P<0.001) lower in Cryptosporidium-positive lambs on Farms A and B respectively. Lambs positive for Giardia at least once had 0.69 kg (P<0.001) lighter HCWs and 1.7% (P<0.001) lower dressing percentages compared to lambs never positive for Giardia on Farm B only. Cryptosporidium-positive lambs at the second sampling were 4.72 (P=0.010) and 3.84 (P=0.002) times more likely to have non-pelleted faeces compared to Cryptosporidium-negative lambs for Farms A and B respectively. Breech fleece faecal soiling scores of Cryptosporidium-positive lambs were 3.36 (P=0.026) and 2.96 (P=0.047) times more likely to be moderate to severe (scores 3-5), compared to negative lambs at the second sampling for Farms A and B respectively. Live weight, growth rate and BCS were inconsistently associated with protozoa detection across different samplings and farms. Adjusted WEC was correlated positively with FCS and negatively with faecal DM%, differing between sampling occasions and farms. Campylobacter jejuni prevalence was very low (<1%). Adjusted WEC were not correlated with carcase attributes, growth rates or live weights. This study is the first to quantify productivity consequences of naturally acquired protozoa infections in lambs managed under extensive farming conditions.

Effect of lairage during 24 h of transport on the behavioural and physiological responses of sheep

The effects on the behavioural and physiological responses of sheep of providing rest, food and water (lairage) during 24 h of either road transport or stationary confinement (treatment) were investigated. Twenty-four hours of continuous treatment was compared with 12 h of treatment followed by either 12 h of lairage, 3 h of lairage or 3 h of food and water on the vehicle, followed by a second 12 h of treatment. A further group of sheep was kept as controls. The plasma cortisol concentration was increased at the start of the journey and after 24 h of continuous transport it was still greater than that in controls (P < 0·05). Apart from a mobilization of body energy reserves as indicated by raised plasma concentrations offree fatty acids after 12 h and β-hydroxybutyrate after 24 h there was no evidence that the welfare of the sheep during the journey was compromised after a particular time. During the lairage and immediately after the second 12-h transport period, the sheep appeared to be hungry. Although sheep transported for 24 h without lairage drank more post transport than controls, there was no biochemical evidence of dehydration during the journey. The sheep lay down during the journey and there was no apparent difference between lairage treatments in the proportion of scans spent lying down during either the second 12-h treatment period or during the first 12 h post treatment. There were fewer potentially traumatic events during the second 22 h of the 24-h journey than during the first 12 h of the journey and no apparent effect of lairage during the journey on the frequency of potentially traumatic events during the second 12-h period of transport.

There was evidence to suggest that a period of lairage during a 24-h journey can be beneficial in providing sheep with an opportunity to eat, drink and avoid the stressors associated with transport. However, providing hay and water on the vehicle during a 3-h stationary period as compared with unloading into a lairage cannot be recommended. Although sheep readily ate hay on the vehicle, they did not drink sufficient water. This resulted in dehydration and a greater plasma cortisol concentration during the remainder of the journey than in those that had been lairaged for 12 h and a greater water intake post transport than in those given either no lairage or 12 h of lairage.

Effect of space allowance during transport on the behavioural and physiological responses of lambs during and after transport

There is limited information on the behavioural and physiological responses of sheep to the components of road transport. Behavioural observations and physiological measurements of ‘stress’, injury and dehydration were made on weaned lambs (35 kg) before, during and after either stationary confinement or transport for 22 h at four space allowances (0·22, 0·27, 0·31 and 0·41 m2 per sheep). Two groups were not loaded (a control group with access to food and water, and a group with no food and no water for 12 h). During the confinement and transport period, the proportion of scans spent lying and the proportion of scans spent ruminating was significantly less than that before treatment (P < 0·01). After 3 h of transport, the proportion of scans spent lying was significantly less at the 0·22 m2 per sheep space allowance than at the other space allowances. The proportion of scans spent lying down was only significantly greater during confinement compared with transport at the 0·22 m2 per sheep space allowance and during the first 6 h at the 0·31 m2 per sheep space allowance. During transport, the heart rate and plasma cortisol concentration were greater than during stationary confinement (P < 0·05), indicating that some aspect of the journey was acting as a stressor. During transport the frequency of losses of balance and the frequency of slips was less at the 0·22 m2 per sheep space allowance than at the 0·27 and 0·41 m2 per sheep space allowances. However, there was no effect of space allowance on either plasma cortisol concentration or biochemical measures of injury. The median frequency of potentially traumatic events during transport was <5 per h and there was little evidence to suggest that increasing space allowance increased the risk of traumatic injury. During the first 12 h after treatment, the proportion of scans spent eating was greater and the proportion of scans spent lying were less than those spent before treatment (P < 0·001). Post-treatment, water intake and packed cell volume were greater in transported sheep than in control sheep (P < 0·05). However, there was no significant effect of 12 h without water on total plasma protein concentration and plasma vasopressin concentration (P > 0·05). Under the conditions of this study, sheep with a live weight of 35 kg can be transported for 12 h at space allowances of between 0·22 and 0·41 m2 per sheep without showing major physiological changes indicative of injury and dehydration. However, the sheep appeared to be hungry after 12 h without food and showed a cortisol and heart rate response to transport, indicating that some aspect of transport was acting as a stressor. A space allowance of 0·22 m2 per sheep cannot be recommended for 35 kg sheep as there is insufficient space for most of the sheep to lie down during transport. Whereas a space allowance of at least 0·27 m2 per sheep does allow most sheep sufficient space to lie down.

Quantifying the hydration status of lambs in relation to carcass characteristics

An experiment was undertaken to determine the physiological effects of water deprivation on lambs before slaughter. The aim of this experiment was to develop a method for quantifying the hydration status of lambs in relation to any subsequent effects on carcass and meat characters. Forty-eight crossbred lambs were subjected to 1 of 4 treatments: (i) normal ambient air temperature with access to water; (ii) normal ambient with no access to water; (iii) high ambient air temperature with access to water; and (iv) high ambient air temperature with no access to water. The treatments were imposed for a period of 48 h, after which the lambs were slaughtered. Food was withheld from all lambs during this 48 h period. Serum and urine were collected from each lamb at 0, 24 and 48 h and the concentrations of a range of analytes measured. Muscle, viscera and gastrointestinal tract were sampled immediately after slaughter. Water deprivation for a period of 48 h caused an increase in liveweight loss but no change in hot carcass weight or dressing percentage. Water deprivation caused an increase in muscle dry matter concentration and osmolality. The concentrations of protein, β-hydroxybutyrate, glucose, creatinine, potassium or albumin in serum were not affected by water deprivation. The concentration of sodium and chloride ions in serum and urine increased with feed deprivation time in lambs which had no access to water, but did not change for lambs that had access to water. Interactions occurred between water access and ambient air temperature for some but not all parameters. A significant relationship was found between muscle dry matter concentration, serum sodium concentration and urine specific gravity. It was concluded that urine specific gravity is a sensitive indicator of water consumption. Serum sodium concentration and urine specific gravity used together may be useful to predict the muscle hydration status of lambs.

The Effects of 24h Water Deprivation when Associated with Some Aspects of Transportation on the Behaviour and Blood Chemistry of Sheep

When sheep are transported they are potentially exposed to a number of factors, including water and feed deprivation, low space allowance and elevated environmental temperature, that are not related to vehicle motion but could result in animal welfare problems, either on their own or in combination. In a 2x2 factorial experiment, groups of sheep (n = 6) were moved from individual pens where they had access to hay and water to environmental chambers kept at either 14°C or 21°C. Within each chamber, half the sheep had access to water but they were all kept at a space allowance of 041m2 sheep−1 without feed. After 24h they were returned to their individual pens and offered hay and water. Behaviour and a range of biochemical measurements of dehydration and feed restriction were recorded before, during and after the treatment period. During the treatment period there was no evidence of dehydration, and sheep with access to water drank less than they did before the treatment. The plasma concentration of free fatty acids increased during fasting and, post-treatment, the intake of hay was greater than before treatment. The rapid post-treatment intake of dry feed was associated with some evidence of dehydration, as indicated by increased plasma osmolality and plasma vasopressin concentration. This suggests that following provision and consumption of large quantities of feed after a period without access to feed and water during transportation, sheep must be allowed sufficient time to drink before a subsequent journey is undertaken.

Effects of a 15h Journey Followed by Either 12h Starvation or Ad Libitum Hay on the Behaviour and Blood Chemistry of Sheep

In a 2x2 factorial design, (n=6) sheep were either transported by road for 15h or kept in their home pens, and then either starved for 12h with access to water or offered hay ad libitum, with access to water. All groups were offered hay and water 12h after transport. Behavioural observations and measurements of dehydration and feed restriction were made before, during, and for 24h post-transport, to evaluate the implications of these procedures for the welfare of sheep.

After the journey, the immediate priority for the sheep was to eat. Consumption of hay increased water intake and reduced the time spent lying down. The plasma Cortisol concentration was greater in sheep which had been starved during the 12h post-transport period, than in those offered hay during this time; and the plasma free fatty acid concentration was greater in sheep which had been transported than in those which had not. Although transported sheep kept without hay during the first 12h post-transport drank more water than those which had not been transported, the mean time before they drank was greater than 7h. During the transport period, there was less lying behaviour in transported sheep than in non-transported sheep but transported sheep did not lie down more posttransport than non-transported ones. This work suggests that sheep should be offered both feed and water after a 15h journey. However, when feed was not available after a 15h journey, drinking and resting did not appear to be immediate priorities.

A review of the road transport of slaughter sheep

The transport of farm animals has been the subject of much research in recent years. This paper reviews the past and recent scientific literature pertinent to the road transport of slaughter sheep. The state of knowledge is summarised and recommendations for best practice based upon this are given. Areas which require further work are also identified.

Effects of feeding, watering and resting intervals on lambs transported by road and ferry to France

Three lorry loads, each of approximately 530 lambs, were monitored during August 1994 while they were transported from the Midlands to France. Each lorry underwent a similar journey, designed to study the effects of a) 22 hours on a lorry broken by two hours of feed, water and rest after 15 hours, b) 34 hours on a lorry broken by eight hours of feed, water and rest after 24 hours and c) 24 hours on a lorry and lairage for the following 48 hours. Measurements were made on 180 lambs in each load, of liveweight, plasma betahydroxybutyrate (BHB), non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA), urea, total protein, albumin, osmolality, creatine kinase (CK), cortisol and glucose, before, during and after transport. Twenty-four hours of transport resulted in changes in some of the variables measured that were little different from those observed after 24 hours of feed and water deprivation; however, the high ambient temperatures during the transport resulted in a greater degree of dehydration. For journeys longer than 15 hours a two-hour rest in lairage with access to water and a palatable food source was beneficial in allowing some slight recovery. Although all the differences were in the direction that would be expected with recovery, they were often small and, within the sensitivity of the study, were only significant for NEFA and C.K. For journeys longer than 24 hours, an eight-hour rest in lairage with access to water and a palatable food source was beneficial and allowed material realimentation and rehydration before further transport for up to 10 hours. After 24 hours of transport, however, liveweight, plasma urea, total protein and albumin had only returned to basal levels after 24 hours in lairage and plasma BHB, CK and osmolality after 48 hours of lairage.

Effect of pre-slaughter handling on the behaviour and blood composition of beef cattle

The pre-slaughter handling, behaviour and blood composition of beef cattle at slaughter was studied in a commercial slaughterhouse. The main problems identified were the routine use of driving instruments and delays caused by stoppages in the slaughter line. The plasma concentration of cortisol at the time of slaughter was positively correlated with the time spent standing still and with the time spent in the pre-stun pen. The plasma activity of creatine kinase was positively correlated with the time spent in the race, but no correlations between creatine kinase and physical activity in the race were found. The plasma concentration of glucose was positively correlated with the time spent trotting and the number of times that struggling occurred. The proportions of cattle struggling, vocalizing and defaecating were greatest when they were confined in the race and pre-stun pen. Cattle kept overnight in the lairage had a greater concentration of free fatty acids at the time of slaughter than those slaughtered on the day of arrival. There were no other significant differences in either the blood composition or the handling and behaviour of cattle kept overnight in the lairage, compared with those slaughtered on the day of arrival. Some of the handling problems observed were caused by incorrect design of the handling facilities. There should be some means of removing cattle from a race if delays are encountered and some means of handling the cattle in the race other than by using an electrical goad. The optimal dimensions of races and passageways to prevent crowding and turning around should be assessed at the design stage. Non-slip floors are essential.