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Xu H, Dickschat JS. Germacrene A-A Central Intermediate in Sesquiterpene Biosynthesis. Chemistry 2020; 26:17318-17341. [PMID: 32442350 PMCID: PMC7821278 DOI: 10.1002/chem.202002163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2020] [Revised: 05/20/2020] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
This review summarises known sesquiterpenes whose biosyntheses proceed through the intermediate germacrene A. First, the occurrence and biosynthesis of germacrene A in Nature and its peculiar chemistry will be highlighted, followed by a discussion of 6-6 and 5-7 bicyclic compounds and their more complex derivatives. For each compound the absolute configuration, if it is known, and the reasoning for its assignment is presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Houchao Xu
- Kekulé-Institute for Organic Chemistry and BiochemistryUniversity of BonnGerhard-Domagk-Straße 153121BonnGermany
| | - Jeroen S. Dickschat
- Kekulé-Institute for Organic Chemistry and BiochemistryUniversity of BonnGerhard-Domagk-Straße 153121BonnGermany
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2
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Dubey MK, Aamir M, Kaushik MS, Khare S, Meena M, Singh S, Upadhyay RS. PR Toxin - Biosynthesis, Genetic Regulation, Toxicological Potential, Prevention and Control Measures: Overview and Challenges. Front Pharmacol 2018; 9:288. [PMID: 29651243 PMCID: PMC5885497 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2018.00288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2017] [Accepted: 03/13/2018] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Out of the various mycotoxigenic food and feed contaminant, the fungal species belonging to Penicillium genera, particularly Penicillium roqueforti is of great economic importance, and well known for its crucial role in the manufacturing of Roquefort and Gorgonzola cheese. The mycotoxicosis effect of this mold is due to secretion of several metabolites, of which PR toxin is of considerable importance, with regard to food quality and safety challenges issues. The food products and silages enriched with PR toxin could lead into damage to vital internal organs, gastrointestinal perturbations, carcinogenicity, immunotoxicity, necrosis, and enzyme inhibition. Moreover, it also has the significant mutagenic potential to disrupt/alter the crucial processes like DNA replication, transcription, and translation at the molecular level. The high genetic diversities in between the various strains of P. roqueforti persuaded their nominations with Protected Geographical Indication (PGI), accordingly to the cheese type, they have been employed. Recently, the biosynthetic mechanism and toxicogenetic studies unraveled the role of ari1 and prx gene clusters that cross-talk with the synthesis of other metabolites or involve other cross-regulatory pathways to negatively regulate/inhibit the other biosynthetic route targeted for production of a strain-specific metabolites. Interestingly, the chemical conversion that imparts toxic properties to PR toxin is the substitution/oxidation of functional hydroxyl group (-OH) to aldehyde group (-CHO). The rapid conversion of PR toxin to the other derivatives such as PR imine, PR amide, and PR acid, based on conditions available reflects their unstability and degradative aspects. Since the PR toxin-induced toxicity could not be eliminated safely, the assessment of dose-response and other pharmacological aspects for its safe consumption is indispensable. The present review describes the natural occurrences, diversity, biosynthesis, genetics, toxicological aspects, control and prevention strategies, and other management aspects of PR toxin with paying special attention on economic impacts with intended legislations for avoiding PR toxin contamination with respect to food security and other biosafety purposes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manish K. Dubey
- Centre of Advanced Study in Botany, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
| | - Mohd Aamir
- Centre of Advanced Study in Botany, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
| | - Manish S. Kaushik
- Centre of Advanced Study in Botany, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
| | - Saumya Khare
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
| | - Mukesh Meena
- Centre of Advanced Study in Botany, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
- Centre for Transgenic Plant Development, Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Science, Hamdard University, New Delhi, India
| | - Surendra Singh
- Centre of Advanced Study in Botany, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
| | - Ram S. Upadhyay
- Centre of Advanced Study in Botany, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
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Yuyama KT, Fortkamp D, Abraham WR. Eremophilane-type sesquiterpenes from fungi and their medicinal potential. Biol Chem 2017; 399:13-28. [PMID: 28822220 DOI: 10.1515/hsz-2017-0171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2017] [Accepted: 08/09/2017] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Eremophilanes are sesquiterpenes with a rearranged carbon skeleton formed both by plants and fungi, however, almost no plant eremophilanes are found in fungi. These eremophilanes possess mainly phytotoxic, antimicrobial, anticancer and immunomodulatory properties and in this review fungal eremophilanes with bioactivities of potential medicinal applications are reviewed and discussed. A special focus is set on natural products bearing highly functionalized fatty acids at C-1 or C-3 position of the eremophilane backbone. Many of these fatty acids seem to contribute to the bioactivity of the metabolites enhancing the activity of the sesquiterpene moieties. Several approaches for optimization of these natural products for clinical needs and testing of the resulting derivatives are presented and discussed. The combination of identification of bioactive natural products with their subsequent improvement using a variety of genetical or chemical tools and the pharmacokinetic assessment of the products is presented here as a promising approach to new drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kamila Tomoko Yuyama
- Helmholtz Center for Infection Research, Chemical Microbiology, Inhoffenstrasse 7, D-38124 Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Diana Fortkamp
- Helmholtz Center for Infection Research, Chemical Microbiology, Inhoffenstrasse 7, D-38124 Braunschweig, Germany.,Escola Superior de Agricultura 'Luiz de Queiroz' (ESALQ), Department of Exact Sciences, Piracicaba, SP, Brazil
| | - Wolf-Rainer Abraham
- Helmholtz Center for Infection Research, Chemical Microbiology, Inhoffenstrasse 7, D-38124 Braunschweig, Germany
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4
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Hymery N, Puel O, Tadrist S, Canlet C, Le Scouarnec H, Coton E, Coton M. Effect of PR toxin on THP1 and Caco-2 cells: an in vitro study. WORLD MYCOTOXIN J 2017. [DOI: 10.3920/wmj2017.2196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Penicillium roqueforti produces mycotoxins including PR toxin, which is a food and feed contaminant. In this study, PR toxin was purified from culture material of the Penicillium roqueforti F43-1 strain. Toxic effects were evaluated in undifferentiated human Caco-2 intestinal epithelial cells and THP-1 monocytic immune cells. To understand the mechanisms involved in PR-toxin toxicity, cell death and pro-inflammatory gene expression were studied. In addition, PR toxin degradation was assessed. Cytotoxicity studies showed a dose-dependent effect of PR toxin and the calculated mean cytotoxic concentration (IC50) concentrations were for Caco-2 and THP-1 cells >12.5 and 0.83 μM, respectively. Gene expression studies showed that tumour necrosis factor-α expression was significantly increased after 24 h exposure to 312 μM PR toxin. PR toxin induced necrosis on THP-1 cells after 3 h exposure. In the cell culture system, the PR toxin showed a 10-fold reduction in PR toxin concentration within 48 h, indicating that PR toxin was degraded by THP-1. To conclude, PR toxin appears to be one of the most cytotoxic P. roqueforti mycotoxins on Caco-2 and/or THP-1 cells and induces in THP-1 cells both necrosis and an inflammatory response.
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Affiliation(s)
- N. Hymery
- Université de Brest, EA 3882, Laboratoire Universitaire de Biodiversité et Ecologie Microbienne, IBSAM, ESIAB, Technopôle Brest-Iroise, 29280 Plouzané, France
| | - O. Puel
- Toxalim (Research Centre in Food Toxicology), Université de Toulouse, INRA, ENVT, INP-Purpan, UPS, Toulouse, France
| | - S. Tadrist
- Toxalim (Research Centre in Food Toxicology), Université de Toulouse, INRA, ENVT, INP-Purpan, UPS, Toulouse, France
| | - C. Canlet
- Toxalim (Research Centre in Food Toxicology), Université de Toulouse, INRA, ENVT, INP-Purpan, UPS, Toulouse, France
- MetaToul-MetaboHUB, National Infrastructure of Metabolomics and Fluxomics, 31027 Toulouse Cedex, France
| | - H. Le Scouarnec
- Université de Brest, EA 3882, Laboratoire Universitaire de Biodiversité et Ecologie Microbienne, IBSAM, ESIAB, Technopôle Brest-Iroise, 29280 Plouzané, France
| | - E. Coton
- Université de Brest, EA 3882, Laboratoire Universitaire de Biodiversité et Ecologie Microbienne, IBSAM, ESIAB, Technopôle Brest-Iroise, 29280 Plouzané, France
| | - M. Coton
- Université de Brest, EA 3882, Laboratoire Universitaire de Biodiversité et Ecologie Microbienne, IBSAM, ESIAB, Technopôle Brest-Iroise, 29280 Plouzané, France
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García-Estrada C, Martín JF. Biosynthetic gene clusters for relevant secondary metabolites produced by Penicillium roqueforti in blue cheeses. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2016; 100:8303-13. [PMID: 27554495 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-016-7788-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2016] [Revised: 08/01/2016] [Accepted: 08/03/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Ripening of blue-veined cheeses, such as the French Bleu and Roquefort, the Italian Gorgonzola, the English Stilton, the Danish Danablu or the Spanish Cabrales, Picón Bejes-Tresviso, and Valdeón, requires the growth and enzymatic activity of the mold Penicillium roqueforti, which is responsible for the characteristic texture, blue-green spots, and aroma of these types of cheeses. This filamentous fungus is able to synthesize different secondary metabolites, including andrastins, mycophenolic acid, and several mycotoxins, such as roquefortines C and D, PR-toxin and eremofortins, isofumigaclavines A and B, and festuclavine. This review provides a detailed description of the main secondary metabolites produced by P. roqueforti in blue cheese, giving a special emphasis to roquefortine, PR-toxin and mycophenolic acid, and their biosynthetic gene clusters and pathways. The knowledge of these clusters and secondary metabolism pathways, together with the ability of P. roqueforti to produce beneficial secondary metabolites, is of interest for commercial purposes.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Juan-Francisco Martín
- Área de Microbiología, Departamento de Biología Molecular, Universidad de León, 24071, León, Spain
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6
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Riclea R, Dickschat JS. Identifizierung von Intermediaten der PR-Toxin-Biosynthese durchPenicillium roqueforti. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2015. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201506128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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7
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Riclea R, Dickschat JS. Identification of Intermediates in the Biosynthesis of PR Toxin byPenicillium roqueforti. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2015; 54:12167-70. [DOI: 10.1002/anie.201506128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2015] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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Mousa WK, Raizada MN. Biodiversity of genes encoding anti-microbial traits within plant associated microbes. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2015; 6:231. [PMID: 25914708 PMCID: PMC4392301 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2015.00231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2015] [Accepted: 03/23/2015] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
The plant is an attractive versatile home for diverse associated microbes. A subset of these microbes produces a diversity of anti-microbial natural products including polyketides, non-ribosomal peptides, terpenoids, heterocylic nitrogenous compounds, volatile compounds, bacteriocins, and lytic enzymes. In recent years, detailed molecular analysis has led to a better understanding of the underlying genetic mechanisms. New genomic and bioinformatic tools have permitted comparisons of orthologous genes between species, leading to predictions of the associated evolutionary mechanisms responsible for diversification at the genetic and corresponding biochemical levels. The purpose of this review is to describe the biodiversity of biosynthetic genes of plant-associated bacteria and fungi that encode selected examples of antimicrobial natural products. For each compound, the target pathogen and biochemical mode of action are described, in order to draw attention to the complexity of these phenomena. We review recent information of the underlying molecular diversity and draw lessons through comparative genomic analysis of the orthologous coding sequences (CDS). We conclude by discussing emerging themes and gaps, discuss the metabolic pathways in the context of the phylogeny and ecology of their microbial hosts, and discuss potential evolutionary mechanisms that led to the diversification of biosynthetic gene clusters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Walaa K. Mousa
- Department of Plant Agriculture, University of GuelphGuelph, ON, Canada
- Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Mansoura UniversityMansoura, Egypt
| | - Manish N. Raizada
- Department of Plant Agriculture, University of GuelphGuelph, ON, Canada
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9
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Darsih C, Prachyawarakorn V, Wiyakrutta S, Mahidol C, Ruchirawat S, Kittakoop P. Cytotoxic metabolites from the endophytic fungus Penicillium chermesinum: discovery of a cysteine-targeted Michael acceptor as a pharmacophore for fragment-based drug discovery, bioconjugation and click reactions. RSC Adv 2015. [DOI: 10.1039/c5ra13735g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
A novel tetracyclic polyketide uniquely spiro-attached with a γ-lactone ring and a potent cytotoxic agent possessing a thiol-reactive pharmacophore were isolated from the mangrove endophytic fungus Penicillium chermesinum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cici Darsih
- Chulabhorn Graduate Institute
- Chemical Biology Program
- Bangkok 10210
- Thailand
| | | | - Suthep Wiyakrutta
- Department of Microbiology
- Faculty of Science
- Mahidol University
- Bangkok 10400
- Thailand
| | - Chulabhorn Mahidol
- Chulabhorn Graduate Institute
- Chemical Biology Program
- Bangkok 10210
- Thailand
- Chulabhorn Research Institute
| | - Somsak Ruchirawat
- Chulabhorn Graduate Institute
- Chemical Biology Program
- Bangkok 10210
- Thailand
- Chulabhorn Research Institute
| | - Prasat Kittakoop
- Chulabhorn Graduate Institute
- Chemical Biology Program
- Bangkok 10210
- Thailand
- Chulabhorn Research Institute
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10
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Hymery N, Vasseur V, Coton M, Mounier J, Jany JL, Barbier G, Coton E. Filamentous Fungi and Mycotoxins in Cheese: A Review. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2014; 13:437-456. [PMID: 33412699 DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2013] [Accepted: 02/12/2014] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Important fungi growing on cheese include Penicillium, Aspergillus, Cladosporium, Geotrichum, Mucor, and Trichoderma. For some cheeses, such as Camembert, Roquefort, molds are intentionally added. However, some contaminating or technological fungal species have the potential to produce undesirable metabolites such as mycotoxins. The most hazardous mycotoxins found in cheese, ochratoxin A and aflatoxin M1, are produced by unwanted fungal species either via direct cheese contamination or indirect milk contamination (animal feed contamination), respectively. To date, no human food poisoning cases have been associated with contaminated cheese consumption. However, although some studies state that cheese is an unfavorable matrix for mycotoxin production; these metabolites are actually detected in cheeses at various concentrations. In this context, questions can be raised concerning mycotoxin production in cheese, the biotic and abiotic factors influencing their production, mycotoxin relative toxicity as well as the methods used for detection and quantification. This review emphasizes future challenges that need to be addressed by the scientific community, fungal culture manufacturers, and artisanal and industrial cheese producers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nolwenn Hymery
- Laboratoire Universitaire de Biodiversité et d'Ecologie Microbienne, ESIAB, Technopôle de Brest Iroise, Université de Brest, EA3882, 29280 Plouzané, France
| | - Valérie Vasseur
- Laboratoire Universitaire de Biodiversité et d'Ecologie Microbienne, ESIAB, Technopôle de Brest Iroise, Université de Brest, EA3882, 29280 Plouzané, France
| | - Monika Coton
- Laboratoire Universitaire de Biodiversité et d'Ecologie Microbienne, ESIAB, Technopôle de Brest Iroise, Université de Brest, EA3882, 29280 Plouzané, France
| | - Jérôme Mounier
- Laboratoire Universitaire de Biodiversité et d'Ecologie Microbienne, ESIAB, Technopôle de Brest Iroise, Université de Brest, EA3882, 29280 Plouzané, France
| | - Jean-Luc Jany
- Laboratoire Universitaire de Biodiversité et d'Ecologie Microbienne, ESIAB, Technopôle de Brest Iroise, Université de Brest, EA3882, 29280 Plouzané, France
| | - Georges Barbier
- Laboratoire Universitaire de Biodiversité et d'Ecologie Microbienne, ESIAB, Technopôle de Brest Iroise, Université de Brest, EA3882, 29280 Plouzané, France
| | - Emmanuel Coton
- Laboratoire Universitaire de Biodiversité et d'Ecologie Microbienne, ESIAB, Technopôle de Brest Iroise, Université de Brest, EA3882, 29280 Plouzané, France
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Mousa WK, Raizada MN. The diversity of anti-microbial secondary metabolites produced by fungal endophytes: an interdisciplinary perspective. Front Microbiol 2013; 4:65. [PMID: 23543048 PMCID: PMC3608919 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2013.00065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 122] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2013] [Accepted: 03/06/2013] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Endophytes are microbes that inhabit host plants without causing disease and are reported to be reservoirs of metabolites that combat microbes and other pathogens. Here we review diverse classes of secondary metabolites, focusing on anti-microbial compounds, synthesized by fungal endophytes including terpenoids, alkaloids, phenylpropanoids, aliphatic compounds, polyketides, and peptides from the interdisciplinary perspectives of biochemistry, genetics, fungal biology, host plant biology, human and plant pathology. Several trends were apparent. First, host plants are often investigated for endophytes when there is prior indigenous knowledge concerning human medicinal uses (e.g., Chinese herbs). However, within their native ecosystems, and where investigated, endophytes were shown to produce compounds that target pathogens of the host plant. In a few examples, both fungal endophytes and their hosts were reported to produce the same compounds. Terpenoids and polyketides are the most purified anti-microbial secondary metabolites from endophytes, while flavonoids and lignans are rare. Examples are provided where fungal genes encoding anti-microbial compounds are clustered on chromosomes. As different genera of fungi can produce the same metabolite, genetic clustering may facilitate sharing of anti-microbial secondary metabolites between fungi. We discuss gaps in the literature and how more interdisciplinary research may lead to new opportunities to develop bio-based commercial products to combat global crop and human pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Walaa Kamel Mousa
- Department of Plant Agriculture, University of Guelph Guelph, ON, Canada ; Department of Pharmacognosy, Mansoura University Mansoura, Egypt
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O'Brien M, Nielsen KF, O'Kiely P, Forristal PD, Fuller HT, Frisvad JC. Mycotoxins and other secondary metabolites produced in vitro by Penicillium paneum Frisvad and Penicillium roqueforti Thom isolated from baled grass silage in Ireland. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2006; 54:9268-76. [PMID: 17117820 DOI: 10.1021/jf0621018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Secondary metabolites produced by Penicillium paneum and Penicillium roqueforti from baled grass silage were analyzed. A total of 157 isolates were investigated, comprising 78 P. paneum and 79 P. roqueforti isolates randomly selected from more than 900 colonies cultured from bales. The findings mostly agreed with the literature, although some metabolites were not consistently produced by either fungus. Roquefortine C, marcfortine A, and andrastin A were consistently produced, whereas PR toxin and patulin were not. Five silage samples were screened for fungal metabolites, with two visually moldy samples containing up to 20 mg/kg of roquefortine C, mycophenolic acid, and andrastin A along with minor quantities (0.1-5 mg/kg) of roquefortines A, B, and D, festuclavine, marcfortine A, and agroclavine. Three visually nonmoldy samples contained low amounts of mycophenolic acid and andrastin A. The ability of both molds to produce a diverse range of secondary metabolites in vitro and in silage should be a concern to livestock producers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin O'Brien
- Teagasc, Grange Beef Research Centre, Dunsany, County Meath, Ireland.
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Abstract
Several strains of Penicillium are used for the production of mold-ripened cheeses, and some of them are able to produce mycotoxins. The aims of the research were the determination of roquefortine C and PR toxin in domestic and imported blue cheeses, the identification of the penicillia used as starter, and the investigation of their capacity for producing toxins in culture media. Roquefortine C was always found in the cheeses at levels ranging from 0.05 to 1.47 mg/kg, whereas the PR toxin was never found. The identification of the fungal strains present in the domestic cheeses included Penicillium glabrum, Penicillium roqueforti, and Penicillium cyclopium in the Gorgonzola "dolce" and Penicillium roqueforti in the Gorgonzola "naturale"; in one case, the presence of Penicillium crustosum was observed. The strains isolated from the foreign cheeses belonged to P. roqueforti. The strains were able to produce between 0.18 and 8.44 mg/liter of roquefortine in yeast extract sucrose medium and between 0.06 and 3.08 mg/liter and less than 0.05 mg/liter when inoculated in milk at 20 degrees C for 14 days and 4 degrees C for 24 days, respectively. Linear relations between production of roquefortine in culture media and cheeses did not emerge. PR toxin ranged from less than 0.05 to 60.30 mg/liter in yeast extract sucrose medium and was produced in milk at 20 degrees C from only one strain. The low levels and the relatively low toxicity of roquefortine make the consumption of blue cheese safe for the consumer.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Finoli
- Dipartimento di Ingegneria e Tecnologie Agro-Forestali, Università degli Studi di Palermo, Italy
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14
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Isolation, purification, and characterization of the PR oxidase from penicillium roqueforti. Appl Environ Microbiol 1998; 64:5012-5. [PMID: 9835598 PMCID: PMC90958 DOI: 10.1128/aem.64.12.5012-5015.1998] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The PR oxidase, an extracellular enzyme, involved in the conversion of PR toxin into PR acid, was purified from the culture broth of Penicillium roqueforti ATCC 48936. The enzyme has a pI of 4.5 and a molecular mass of approximately 88 kDa, and it is a monomer. The optimum pH for this enzyme is ca. 4.0, and the optimum temperature is 50 degreesC.
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15
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Chang SC, Lu KL, Yeh SF. Secondary metabolites resulting from degradation of PR toxin by Penicillium roqueforti. Appl Environ Microbiol 1993; 59:981-6. [PMID: 8476299 PMCID: PMC202226 DOI: 10.1128/aem.59.4.981-986.1993] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
PR toxin is a secondary metabolite of the fungus Penicillium roqueforti. It is lethal to rats, mice, and cats. Usually, the amount of PR toxin in the culture medium decreases from its maximum on day 15 to zero within 3 to 4 days. We found that two were secondary metabolites produced in the culture medium of this fungus while the production of PR toxin was decreasing. We isolated and purified the two compounds in pure and colorless crystalline form. On the basis of elemental analysis and mass, 1H and 13C nuclear magnetic resonance, infrared, and UV spectroscopies, the two compounds were identified as PR-imine (C17H21O5N) and PR-amide (C17H21O6N). The structures of both compounds and of PR toxin (C17H20O6) were closely related, and the peak production of PR toxin appeared earlier than those of PR-imine and PR-amide. Moreover, PR toxin was transformed to PR-imine when PR toxin was incubated with the culture medium on a given culture day. Thus, we propose that PR toxin is degraded into PR-imine and PR-amide in the culture medium of P. roqueforti.
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Affiliation(s)
- S C Chang
- Department of Biochemistry, National Yang-Ming Medical College, Taipei, Taiwan, Republic of China
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16
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Chang SC, Wei YH, Wei DL, Chen YY, Jong SC. Factors affecting the production of eremofortin C and PR toxin in Penicillium roqueforti. Appl Environ Microbiol 1991; 57:2581-5. [PMID: 1768131 PMCID: PMC183623 DOI: 10.1128/aem.57.9.2581-2585.1991] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Eremofortin C (EC) and PR toxin are secondary metabolites of Penicillium roqueforti. Of 17 strains from the American Type Culture Collection that were studied for their ability to produce EC and PR toxin, 13 produced these metabolites. Toxin production by strains grown in solid media (10 cereals and 8 other agricultural products) was also investigated. Production of EC and PR toxin by fungi grown on cereals was greater than production of EC and PR toxin by fungi grown on legumes; fungi grown on corn produced the greatest amount of PR toxin. Addition of corn extracts to the culture medium greatly increased the production of EC and PR toxin in a coordinated manner, with no significant change in mycelial dry weight. The fungi produced the highest levels of EC and PR toxin at 20 to 24 degrees C depending on the strain. Toxin production was higher in stationary cultures than in cultures that were gently shaken at 120 rpm. The optimum pH for production of both EC and PR toxin was around pH 4.0. With regard to spore age, toxin levels did not change significantly when we used spores obtained from fungi that were grown at 24 degrees C for 3 up to 48 days.
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Affiliation(s)
- S C Chang
- Department of Biochemistry, National Yang-Ming Medical College, Taipei, Taiwan, Republic of China
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Capasso R, Palumbo G, Randazzo G, Bavoso A, Blasio BD, Pavone V. Stereostructure and formation mechanisn of a new substituted benzofuran from phomenone. Tetrahedron 1986. [DOI: 10.1016/s0040-4020(01)87290-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Chang SC, Wei YH, Liu ML, Wei RD. Isolation and Some Properties of the Enzyme That Transforms Eremofortin C to PR Toxin. Appl Environ Microbiol 1985; 49:1455-60. [PMID: 16346812 PMCID: PMC241746 DOI: 10.1128/aem.49.6.1455-1460.1985] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
PR toxin and eremofortin C are secondary metabolites of
Penicillium roqueforti.
The chemical structures of these two compounds are closely related to each other and differ only by an aldehyde and an alcohol group at the C-12 position. In an effort to better understand the biosynthesis of PR toxin, we discovered the enzyme of
P. roqueforti
that is responsible for the transformation of eremofortin C to PR toxin. The maximum activity of the enzyme in the culture medium was found to occur on day 13, which corresponded to the maximal production of PR toxin in the medium. The enzyme was isolated and purified from the culture medium and the mycelium of the fungus, respectively, through a procedure involving ammonium sulfate fractionation and DEAE-cellulose chromatography. The specific activity increased 20- and 8-fold, respectively, and the yield was 33.3 and 21.6%, respectively, for the enzyme from the medium and mycelium. The optimal pH for the enzyme reaction was ca. pH 5.6. The enzyme reaction was temperature dependent. The rates followed a linear time course when it catalyzed the transformation at 30°C and decayed with time when reacted at higher temperatures. At 100°C, the enzyme activity was completely lost. The
K
m
and
V
max
of the enzyme as determined at 30°C were 0.02 mM and 4.0 μmol/min per mg, respectively. The molecular weight of the enzyme was estimated by gel filtration on a high-pressure liquid chromatography I-250 protein column to be ca. 40,000.
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Affiliation(s)
- S C Chang
- Institute of Biochemistry, National Yang-Ming Medical College, Taipei, Taiwan 112, Republic of China
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Lee YH, Fang SC, Wei RD. The effects of Penicillium roqueforti toxin on the activity of rat hepatic DNA polymerases. Toxicology 1984; 33:43-57. [PMID: 6495345 DOI: 10.1016/0300-483x(84)90015-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
PR toxin, a mycotoxin from cultures of Penicillium roqueforti, inhibited the in vitro activities of rat liver DNA polymerase alpha, beta, and gamma irrespectively of the nature of template-primer used. The concentration required for 50% inhibition of DNA polymerase alpha was 5-6 X 10(-6) M, while those for DNA polymerase beta and gamma were several times higher. By using DNA polymerase beta as a model, and based on the enzyme and template-primer concentration effects and also from the kinetic analysis on PR toxin inhibition, we concluded that two action mechanisms of PR toxin inhibition on in vitro DNA synthesis are operative. Inhibition of the in vitro DNA synthesis directed by DNA template was mediated primarily through alteration of the enzyme itself, whereas in the DNA synthesis reaction directed by RNA template DNA primer, the impairment of template or primer function due to PR toxin treatment probably had occurred. The inhibition of DNA polymerase by PR toxin persisted even after exhaustive dialysis. Addition of PR toxin to an ongoing reaction also inhibited DNA synthesis. Inactivation of DNA polymerase activity of PR toxin likely involved some essential amino acid residues other than sulfhydryl groups.
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Wei YH, Ding WH, Wei RD. Biochemical effects of PR toxin on rat liver mitochondrial respiration and oxidative phosphorylation. Arch Biochem Biophys 1984; 230:400-11. [PMID: 6324685 DOI: 10.1016/0003-9861(84)90420-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
The in vitro effects of PR toxin, a toxic secondary metabolite produced by certain strains of Penicillium roqueforti, on the membrane structure and function of rat liver mitochondria were investigated. It was found that the respiratory control and oxidative phosphorylation of the isolated mitochondria decreased concomitantly when the toxin was added to the assay system. The respiratory control ratio decreased about 60% and the ADP/O ratio decreased about 40% upon addition of 3.1 X 10(-5) M PR toxin to the highly coupled mitochondria. These findings suggest that PR toxin impairs the structural integrity of mitochondrial membranes. On the other hand, the toxin inhibited mitochondrial respiratory functions. It exhibited noncompetitive inhibitions to succinate oxidase, succinate-cytochrome c reductase, and succinate dehydrogenase activities of the mitochondrial respiratory chain. The inhibitory constants of PR toxin to these three enzyme systems were estimated to be 5.1 X 10(-6), 2.4 X 10(-5), and 5.2 X 10(-5) M, respectively. Moreover, PR toxin was found to change the spectral features of succinate-reduced cytochrome b and cytochrome c1 in succinate-cytochrome c reductase and inhibited the electron transfer between the two cytochromes. These observations indicate that the electron transfer function of succinate-cytochrome c reductase was perturbed by the toxin. However, PR toxin did not show significant inhibition of either cytochrome oxidase or NADH dehydrogenase activity of the mitochondria. It is thus concluded that PR toxin exerts its effect on the mitochondrial respiration and oxidative phosphorylation through action on the membrane and the succinate-cytochrome c reductase complex of the mitochondria.
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Abstract
The toxic effects of PR toxin were observed in mice, rats, anesthetized cats and isolated rat auricle preparations. In mice and rats the toxic effects included abdominal writhing, decrease of motor activity and respiratory rate, weakness of hindleg and ataxia. In mice, the i.p. LD50 was 5.8 mg/kg. In mice, rats and cats PR toxin given i.p. caused ascites fluid an edema in the scrotum and lungs, and i.v. injection caused edema in the lungs, giving rise to a large volume of pleural and pericardial fluid. In rats, at the LD50 dose level (11.6 mg/kg, i.p. and 8.2 mg/kg, i.v.), the water content in the lungs was increased, but in the skin it was decreased. Blood K+, hematocrit, red blood cell, white blood cell, hemoglobin, uric acid, cholesterol, blood urea nitrogen and alkaline phosphatase concentrations were all increased, while the total protein and albumin contents were decreased after i.p. injection of PR toxin. High content of protein was found in the pleural fluid and fluid due to ascites. In anesthetized cats the blood pressure and respiratory rate were progressively decreased and the heart rate was reflexly increased after i.p. injection. The i.v. injection produced a multiple response on the arterial blood pressure, but with a progressively decreasing heart rate. Arrhythmias were observed in the late shock stage in the case of i.p. or i.v. injection. In the isolated rat auricle preparations contractile force was more affected that heart rate. We conclude that PR toxin produced acute toxic effects in animals via an increase of capillary permeability and a direct damage to the lungs, heart, liver and kidney.
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22
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Moulé Y, Hermann M, Renault G. Negative response of PR toxin in the Salmonella typhimurium/microsome test and sister-chromatid exchange assay. Mutat Res 1981; 89:203-7. [PMID: 7022194 DOI: 10.1016/0165-1218(81)90238-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
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Moulé Y, Decloitre F, Hamon G. Mutagenicity of the mycotoxin botryodiplodin in the Salmonella typhimurium/microsomal activation test. ENVIRONMENTAL MUTAGENESIS 1981; 3:287-91. [PMID: 7023925 DOI: 10.1002/em.2860030311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
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Moulé Y, Moreau S, Aujard C. Induction of cross-links between DNA and protein by PR toxin, a mycotoxin from Penicillium roqueforti. Mutat Res 1980; 77:79-89. [PMID: 7360159 DOI: 10.1016/0165-1218(80)90123-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
PR toxin, a mycotoxin from Penicillium roqueforti, induces DNA--protein cross-links in chromatin of both cultured cells and isolated rat-liver nuclei. The presence of the aldehyde group in the PRT molecule is required for the induction of cross-linking; methylene bridges between nucleic acid and protein are presumably involved in the complex formation. The role of other functional groups of PR toxin is discussed.
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Abstract
We studied the effects on liver cells in culture of PR toxin, a substance produced from Penicillium roqueforti. PR toxin displayed cytotoxicity which increased as a function of its concentration but the form of such toxicity differed, depending on the toxin's concentration. Thus, cells only underwent quick retraction and intensive vacuolization when treated with low drug concentrations, and they came away from the substrate easily under these conditions. By contrast, the major events observed in the case of high concentrations were loss of structure of the nuclei and strong adhesiveness of dead cells to the support. PR toxin already inhibited cell multiplication at low concentrations and became toxic when the concentration was raised; growth inhibition decreased but the toxic effect increased when cells passed from the exponential growth phase to a phase of slower growth. PR toxin inhibited tritiated precursor incorporation into DNA, RNA and proteins in a similar time and concentration-dependent manner. Inhibition of DNA synthesis persisted even after removal of the drug from the medium.
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Wei R, Ong T, Whong W, Frezza D, Bronzetti G, Zeiger E. Genetic effects of PR toxin in eukaryotic microorganisms. ENVIRONMENTAL MUTAGENESIS 1979; 1:45-53. [PMID: 162284 DOI: 10.1002/em.2860010111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The genetic activity of PR toxin, a mycotoxin from Penicillium roqueforti, was studied in Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Neurospora crassa. The results show that PR toxin, without enzymic activation, causes gene conversion in S. cerevisiae strains D4 and D7, reverse mutation in S. cerevisiae strain D7 and N. crassa strain N24, and mitotic crossing-over in S. cerevisiae strain D7, In the log phase cells of S. cerevisiae the effects are more pronounced at alkaline than at acid pH. The active site responsible for the genetic activity and toxicity is known. The carbonyl groups appear to play an important role in the biologic activity of this molecule.
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Polonelli L, Morace G, delle Monache F, Samson RA. Studies on the PR toxin of Penicillium roqueforti. Mycopathologia 1978; 66:99-104. [PMID: 35751 DOI: 10.1007/bf00429600] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
A mycotoxin, confirmed by chemical, physical and spectroscopic data as the PR toxin described by Ru-Dong Wei and coll. (15) has been isolated from culture filtrates of Penicillium roqueforti Thom. Factors affecting the toxin and mycelium production, acute and chronic toxicity in experimental animals and the frequency of toxinogenesis of 21 isolates of P. roqueforti (including a brown mutant) isolated from different materials, foods especially, were also studied. An hypothesis on the absence of PR toxin in cheeses fermented with P. roqueforti is also advanced.
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Cacan M, Moreau S, Tailliez R. [In vitro study of glucuronoconjugation of the toxin from Penicillium roqueforti (P.R.T.) and its metabolites]. Biochimie 1978; 60:685-9. [PMID: 102369 DOI: 10.1016/s0300-9084(78)80789-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Rat liver microsome UDP-glucuronyltransferase and labelled UDP-glucuronic acid were incubated either with P.R.T. or the compounds obtained by the in vitro metabolism of the toxin. Under the same conditions, labelled P.R.T. or its labelled metabolites were incubated with UDP glucuronyltransferase. Radioactive metabolites were produced with Eremofortin C and Eremofortin C alcohol and in each case, were identified as the corresponding beta-glucuronide conjugate. No measurable glucuronidation of P.R.T. or P.R.T. alcohol was observed. The results outlined in this paper show a good correlation between the biological effects and the ability of forming a glucuronide conjugate.
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Sieber R. [Harmlessness to human health of the mold cultures used in cheesemaking]. ZEITSCHRIFT FUR ERNAHRUNGSWISSENSCHAFT 1978; 17:112-23. [PMID: 685320 DOI: 10.1007/bf02021118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Mould cultures are used for the manufacture of soft and blue cheese. The report deals with the present stage of knowledge of the question of mycotoxin-producers in mould cultures used for cheesemaking. The PR-toxin was isolated repeatedly from Penicillium roqueforti strains which were incubated on special media, but also from P. roqueforti cultures used for cheese manufacture. However, cheese ripening conditions do not favor the production of this toxin. Other catabolites from P. roqueforti such als roquefortine and isofumigaclavine have been found in cheese, but there is not much known about their toxic effect. No cancerogenic mycotoxins have been discovered in these types of cheese, except alfatoxin M1, which might however originate from contaminated milk. It must be concluded that the occurrence of tumors after feeding of a pure P. camemberti var. candidum culture is due to the effect of mycotoxins. On the other hand, further animal experiments with various mould culture stains used for cheesemaking have not confirmed these findings. On the basis of the literature consulted it may be said that the use of mould cultures for cheesemaking does not involve any risk for human health, that means it is toxicologically harmless.
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Moulé Y, Jammali M, Darracq N. Inhibition of protein synthesis by PR toxin, a mycotoxin from Penicillium roqueforti. FEBS Lett 1978; 88:341-4. [PMID: 648640 DOI: 10.1016/0014-5793(78)80207-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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Moulé Y, Jemmali M, Rousseau N, Darracq N. Action of monovalent cations on the biological properties of PR toxin, a mycotoxin from Penicillium roqueforti. Chem Biol Interact 1977; 18:153-62. [PMID: 890844 DOI: 10.1016/0009-2797(77)90003-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
PR toxin impairs liver cell metabolism by inhibiting RNA and protein synthesis. In vitro, the drug inhibits the transcription carried out by isolated rat liver nuclei and the translation promoted by polysomes. The action of monovalent cations on the biological activities of PR toxin has been studied. The increased ionic strength due to the presence of salt in the incubation medium, lowers the inhibitory action of PR toxin on in vitro transcription and translation activities; this action is reversible. Besides the overall effect of the ionic strength, ammonium salts possess a specific ability to suppress irreversibly the biological properties of PR toxin (in vivo toxicity and capacity of inhibiting RNA and protein synthesis). The mechanism of this action is discussed.
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Moulé Y, Moreau S, Bousquet JF. Relationships between the chemical structure and the biological properties of some eremophilane compounds related to PR toxin. Chem Biol Interact 1977; 17:185-92. [PMID: 884773 DOI: 10.1016/0009-2797(77)90083-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
The problem of the chemical structure--biological effects relationships has been studied for various eremophilane compounds related to PR toxin (PRT), a mycotoxin synthesized by Penicillium roqueforti. The biological tests were based on in vivo toxicity for male Swiss mice and inhibition of in vitro transcription and tranlation. The results showed a good correlation between the responses obtained for the three tests by the different compounds; thus, the toxic potency and the capacity of inhibiting transcription and translation should be directed by a common chemical structure. The data also indicated that the biological properties are related to the existence of an aldehyde group in position 12. In addition, evidence has been obtained demonstrating the hydrolysis of PRT imine with formation of a PRT-like compound.
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Moulé Y, Hatey F. Mechanism of the in vitro inhibition of transcription by patulin, a mycotoxin from Byssochlamys nivea. FEBS Lett 1977; 74:121-5. [PMID: 320044 DOI: 10.1016/0014-5793(77)80767-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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35
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Chu FS. Mode of action of mycotoxins and related compounds. ADVANCES IN APPLIED MICROBIOLOGY 1977; 22:83-143. [PMID: 337772 DOI: 10.1016/s0065-2164(08)70161-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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