Intratectal glutamate suppresses pentylenetetrazole-induced spike-and-wave discharges

Optogenetic activation of the superior colliculus attenuates spontaneous seizures in the pilocarpine model of temporal lobe epilepsy

OBJECTIVE

Decades of studies have indicated that activation of the deep and intermediate layers of the superior colliculus can suppress seizures in a wide range of experimental models of epilepsy. However, prior studies have not examined efficacy against spontaneous limbic seizures. The present study aimed to address this gap through chronic optogenetic activation of the superior colliculus in the pilocarpine model of temporal lobe epilepsy.

METHODS

Sprague Dawley rats underwent pilocarpine-induced status epilepticus and were maintained until the onset of spontaneous seizures. Virus coding for channelrhodopsin-2 was injected into the deep and intermediate layers of the superior colliculus, and animals were implanted with head-mounted light-emitting diodes at the same site. Rats were stimulated with either 5- or 100-Hz light delivery. Seizure number, seizure duration, 24-h seizure burden, and behavioral seizure severity were monitored.

RESULTS

Both 5- and 100-Hz optogenetic stimulation of the deep and intermediate layers of the superior colliculus reduced daily seizure number and total seizure burden in all animals in the active vector group. Stimulation did not affect either seizure duration or behavioral seizure severity. Stimulation was without effect in opsin-negative control animals.

SIGNIFICANCE

Activation of the deep and intermediate layers of the superior colliculus reduces both the number of seizures and total daily seizure burden in the pilocarpine model of temporal lobe epilepsy. These novel data demonstrating an effect against chronic experimental seizures complement a long history of studies documenting the antiseizure efficacy of superior colliculus activation in a range of acute seizure models.

The Superior Colliculus: Cell Types, Connectivity, and Behavior

The superior colliculus (SC), one of the most well-characterized midbrain sensorimotor structures where visual, auditory, and somatosensory information are integrated to initiate motor commands, is highly conserved across vertebrate evolution. Moreover, cell-type-specific SC neurons integrate afferent signals within local networks to generate defined output related to innate and cognitive behaviors. This review focuses on the recent progress in understanding of phenotypic diversity amongst SC neurons and their intrinsic circuits and long-projection targets. We further describe relevant neural circuits and specific cell types in relation to behavioral outputs and cognitive functions. The systematic delineation of SC organization, cell types, and neural connections is further put into context across species as these depend upon laminar architecture. Moreover, we focus on SC neural circuitry involving saccadic eye movement, and cognitive and innate behaviors. Overall, the review provides insight into SC functioning and represents a basis for further understanding of the pathology associated with SC dysfunction.

Optogenetic activation of superior colliculus neurons suppresses seizures originating in diverse brain networks

Because sites of seizure origin may be unknown or multifocal, identifying targets from which activation can suppress seizures originating in diverse networks is essential. We evaluated the ability of optogenetic activation of the deep/intermediate layers of the superior colliculus (DLSC) to fill this role. Optogenetic activation of DLSC suppressed behavioral and electrographic seizures in the pentylenetetrazole (forebrain+brainstem seizures) and Area Tempestas (forebrain/complex partial seizures) models; this effect was specific to activation of DLSC, and not neighboring structures. DLSC activation likewise attenuated seizures evoked by gamma butyrolactone (thalamocortical/absence seizures), or acoustic stimulation of genetically epilepsy prone rates (brainstem seizures). Anticonvulsant effects were seen with stimulation frequencies as low as 5 Hz. Unlike previous applications of optogenetics for the control of seizures, activation of DLSC exerted broad-spectrum anticonvulsant actions, attenuating seizures originating in diverse and distal brain networks. These data indicate that DLSC is a promising target for optogenetic control of epilepsy.

Pedunculopontine neurons are involved in network changes in the kindling model of temporal lobe epilepsy

It is well known that epileptogenesis is associated with widespread neuronal network changes in brain regions adjacent to the seizure focus but also in remote structures including basal ganglia. Besides the superior colliculus, the pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus (PPN) is one of three main target regions of basal ganglia output activity and is reciprocally connected with the substantia nigra pars reticulata (SNr), which is critically involved in seizure propagation and manipulation. We here tested the hypothesis if, apart from the traditional view that the superior colliculus mediates seizure-gating mechanisms of the SNr, the PPN is involved in kindling-induced network changes. Rats were electrically kindled via the ipsilateral basolateral amygdala. In vivo extracellular single unit recordings of right PPN neurons were performed in kindled rats 1 day after a generalized seizure in order to examine kindling-associated rather than seizure-associated activity changes. The main findings of the study were (1) a seizure-outlasting drastically reduced firing rate of PPN neurons and (2) an increase in burst and irregular firing pattern in kindled rats compared with sham-kindled and naïve controls. These changes are likely to be caused by an altered inhibitory input from the SNr. Furthermore, kindling caused (3) the oscillation frequency of PPN neurons to shift towards lower frequencies. The kindling-induced activity changes were found to be anatomically restricted to the PPN, indicating that network changes follow distinct anatomical routes. We demonstrated that the PPN is strongly affected by the functional reorganization of neurocircuitry associated with kindling. The underlying mechanisms are discussed. The findings are relevant for a better understanding of kindling-associated network changes and might provide new targets for therapeutic manipulations in epilepsies.

Anatomical evidence for an anticonvulsant relay in the rat ventromedial medulla

Pharmacological manipulation of the ventrolateral pontine reticular formation (vlPRF) of rats has an anticonvulsant effect in the maximal electroshock model of epilepsy. This study presents three anatomical experiments that determine the efferent projections from this region likely to mediate this anticonvulsant effect. In the first, the anterograde tracer biotinylated dextran amine (BDA) was injected into the vlPRF. A strong projection to the ventromedial medullary reticular formation (vmMRF) was revealed which continued only weakly to the spinal cord. In the second experiment, double-label procedures were used to indicate whether the BDA-labelled terminals from the vlPRF make contacts with neurons in vmMRF, retrogradely labelled with cholera-toxin B subunit from the lumbar spinal cord. Sections of the vmMRF were examined by: (i) light microscopy which showed significant overlap between terminals from vlPRF and retrogradely-labelled reticulospinal cells; (ii) confocal microscopy which showed labelled terminals in close association with reticulospinal cell bodies; and (iii) electron microscopy which showed vlPRF terminals making synaptic contact with reticulospinal neurons. Finally, immunohistochemical procedures in combination with anterograde tracing revealed that significant numbers of terminals labelled from vlPRF were also positive for markers of glutamatergic or GABAergic neurotransmission. This suggests that the projection from the vlPRF to the vmMRF is likely to include several different functional components. These connections could represent a final critical link of an anticonvulsant circuit that originates in the dorsal midbrain and projects via relays in the vlPRF and the vmMRF to interact with the low-level motor circuitry in the spinal cord.

Mu-opioid receptors in seizure-controlling brain structures are altered by prenatal morphine exposure and by male and female gonadal steroids in adult rats

The present study used autoradiography to examine the effect of prenatal morphine exposure on mu-opioid receptor density in epileptic seizure-controlling brain structures including the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNC), substantia nigra pars reticulata (SNR), superior colliculus (SC), and subthalamic nucleus (STN) of adult male and female rats. The results demonstrate that prenatal morphine exposure increases the mu-opioid receptor density in the SNC and STN, but not in the SNR or in the SC of gonadally intact adult male rats. The density of mu-opioid receptors in the SNC and STN is, however, decreased following gonadectomy in morphine-exposed males, and testosterone treatment fails to restore this decrease to the level of gonadally intact males. Further, in the SC, the density of mu receptors was lower in both saline-exposed, gonadectomized (GNX) and GNX, TP-treated males and in morphine-exposed, GNX, TP-treated males relative to gonadally intact saline- and morphine-exposed males, respectively. In ovariectomized (OVX) female rats, the same prenatal morphine exposure increases the mu-opioid receptor density in the SNC and SNR, but decreases it in the STN. The density of mu-opioid receptors is also decreased in the SNC and SC of OVX estrogen-treated females and in the SNR and SC of OVX, progesterone-treated females. Thus, the present study demonstrates that mu-opioid receptors in seizure-controlling brain structures are sex-specifically altered by prenatal morphine exposure in adult progeny. Further, prenatal morphine exposure alters gonadal hormone effects on the density of mu receptors in adult, OVX females.

Superior colliculus firing changes after lesion or electrical stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus in the rat

Recent data have suggested a critical role for the basal ganglia in the remote control of epileptic seizures. In particular, it has been shown that inhibition of either substantia nigra pars reticulata or subthalamic nucleus as well as activation of the superior colliculus suppresses generalized seizures in several animal models. It was previously shown that high frequency stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus, thought to act as functional inhibition, stopped ongoing non-convulsive generalized seizures in rats. In order to determine whether high frequency stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus involved an activation of superior colliculus neurons, we examined the effects of subthalamic nucleus manipulation, by either high frequency stimulation or chemical lesion, on the spontaneous electrical activity of superior colliculus neurons. Acute high frequency stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus (frequency 130 Hz) induced an immediate increase of unitary activity in 70% of responding cells, mainly located within the deep layers, whereas a reduction was observed in the remaining 30%. The latter responses are dependent on the intensity and frequency of the stimulation. Unilateral excitotoxic lesion of the subthalamic nucleus induced a delayed and transient decrease of superior colliculus activity. Our data suggest that high frequency stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus suppresses generalised epileptic seizures through superior colliculus activation.

Dopamine in the striatum modulates seizures in a genetic model of absence epilepsy in the rat

Inhibition of the substantia nigra pars reticulata has been shown to suppress seizures in different animal models of epilepsy. The striatum is the main input of the substantia nigra pars reticulata. The aim of the present study was to examine the role of dopaminergic neurotransmission within the striatum in the control of absence seizures in a genetic model in the rat. Injections of mixed dopaminergic D1/D2 or of selective D1 or D2 agonists or antagonists in the dorsal parts of the striatum led to suppression of absence seizures associated with strong behavioral and electroencephalographic side-effects. When injected in the ventral part of the striatum (i.e. the nucleus accumbens core), all these agonists and antagonists respectively decreased and increased absence seizures without behavioral or electroencephalographic side-effects. Combined injections of low doses of a D1 and a D2 agonist in the core of the nucleus accumbens had an additive effect in absence seizures suppression. Furthermore, combined injections of low doses of a GABA(A) agonist and a N-methyl-D-aspartate antagonist in the substantia nigra also had cumulative effects in absence seizures suppression. These results show that dopamine neurotransmission in the core of the nucleus accumbens is critical in the control of absence seizures. The modulatory and additive effects on absence seizures of dopaminergic neurotransmission through both the D1 and D2 receptors in the core of the nucleus accumbens further suggest that ventral pathways of the basal ganglia system are involved in the modulation of absence seizures.

The role of basal ganglia in the control of generalized absence seizures

During the last two decades, evidence has accumulated to demonstrate the existence, in the central nervous system, of an endogenous mechanism that exerts an inhibitory control over different forms of epileptic seizures. The substantia nigra and the superior colliculus have been described as key structures in this control circuit; inhibition of GABAergic neurons of the substantia nigra pars reticulata results in suppression of seizures in various animal models of epilepsy. The role in this control mechanism of the direct GABAergic projection from the striatum to the substantia nigra and of the indirect pathway, from the striatum through the globus pallidus and the subthalamic nucleus, was examined in a genetic model of absence seizures in the rat. In this model, pharmacological manipulations of both the direct and indirect pathways resulted in modulation of absence seizures. Activation of the direct pathway or inhibition of the indirect pathway suppressed absence seizures through disinhibition of neurons in the deep and intermediate layers of the superior colliculus. Dopamine D1 and D2 receptors in the nucleus accumbens, appear to be critical in these suppressive effects. Along with data from the literature, our results suggest that basal ganglia circuits play a major role in the modulation of absence seizures and provide a framework to understand the role of these circuits in the modulation of generalized seizures.

Pathophysiological mechanisms of genetic absence epilepsy in the rat

Generalized non-convulsive absence seizures are characterized by the occurrence of synchronous and bilateral spike and wave discharges (SWDs) on the electroencephalogram, that are concomitant with a behavioral arrest. Many similarities between rodent and human absence seizures support the use of genetic rodent models, in which spontaneous SWDs occur. This review summarizes data obtained on the neurophysiological and neurochemical mechanisms of absence seizures with special emphasis on the Genetic Absence Epilepsy Rats from Strasbourg (GAERS). EEG recordings from various brain regions and lesion experiments showed that the cortex, the reticular nucleus and the relay nuclei of the thalamus play a predominant role in the development of SWDs. Neither the cortex, nor the thalamus alone can sustain SWDs, indicating that both structures are intimely involved in the genesis of SWDs. Pharmacological data confirmed that both inhibitory and excitatory neurotransmissions are involved in the genesis and control of absence seizures. Whether the generation of SWDs is the result of an excessive cortical excitability, due to an unbalance between inhibition and excitation, or excessive thalamic oscillations, due to abnormal intrinsic neuronal properties under the control of inhibitory GABAergic mechanisms, remains controversial. The thalamo-cortical activity is regulated by several monoaminergic and cholinergic projections. An alteration of the activity of these different ascending inputs may induce a temporary inadequation of the functional state between the cortex and the thalamus and thus promote SWDs. The experimental data are discussed in view of these possible pathophysiological mechanisms.

Regional distribution of the anticonvulsant and behavioural effects of bicuculline injected into the pontine reticular formation of rats

Previous experimental work has established that activation of sites in the dorsal midbrain can suppress tonic hindlimb extension in the electroshock model of epilepsy. The most sensitive region for this effect is centred on the intercollicular area and is referred to as the dorsal midbrain anticonvulsant zone (DMAZ). Subsequent experiments have shown that the ipsilateral descending projection from this region to the ventrolateral pons is critically involved in mediating its tonic seizure-suppressing properties. The purpose of the present investigation was to test whether direct anticonvulsant effects in the electroshock model could be obtained from selective manipulation of DMAZ target regions in the ventrolateral pons. Animals were prepared with chronically implanted guide cannulae through which microinjections could be made directly into the lateral pontine reticular formation. Animals received injections of saline or bicuculline (25-100 pmol) administered either bilaterally or unilaterally. The effects of these injections on the animals' behaviour were determined in an open arena, after which maximal electroshock (1 s, 40 mA, 50 Hz AC) was administered via ear-clip electrodes and the duration of tonic hindlimb extension was recorded. Bilateral injections of bicuculline (100 pmol) suppressed tonic seizures at a significantly higher proportion of sites centred on DMAZ target regions of the ventrolateral pons than surrounding areas. For injections centred on this region the suppressive effects of bicuculline were dose-related in the range 25-100 pmol. Unilateral injections of bicuculline into the ventrolateral pons also effectively suppressed tonic seizures in the electroshock model. Within the ventral pons there was a significant association between the behavioural and anticonvulsant effects of bicuculline; injections suppressing tonic seizures were associated with the induction of fast continuous locomotor activity. These data confirm that the DMAZ recipient region of the ventrolateral pontine reticular formation is part of a circuit which can suppress the manifestation of tonic hindlimb extension in the electroshock model. Whether this property is related to the participation of this region in normal locomotion and posture remains to be determined.

The dorsal midbrain anticonvulsant zone--I. Effects of locally administered excitatory amino acids or bicuculline on maximal electroshock seizures

Microinjections of bicuculline methiodide into the dorsal midbrain anticonvulsant zone, a region which includes the caudal deep layers of the superior colliculus, the adjacent mesencephalic reticular formation and the intercollicular nucleus, suppress tonic hindlimb extension induced by maximal electroshock. The purpose of the present experiments was to establish the most effective and convenient method for eliciting anticonvulsant properties from the dorsal midbrain using the electroshock model of epilepsy. A comparison of different injections of excitatory amino acids and bicuculline into the dorsal midbrain of the rat showed: (i) injections of kainate suppressed hindlimb extension but only at substantially larger doses (i.e. 200-400 pmol) than 50 pmol of bicuculline, which produced generally superior effects; (ii) quisqualate provided only weak protection against tonic seizures at doses that produced neurotoxic effects (2-40 nmol); (iii) N-methyl-D-aspartate was ineffective at doses which produced mild clonic seizure in their own right (2-4 nmol) and also produced some evidence of neurotoxicity; (iv) the suppression of hindlimb extension by bicuculline was dose related, and the lowest bilateral dose for producing reliable suppression was 50 pmol/400 nl per side; and (v) a unilateral injection of 100 pmol/400 nl also reliably suppressed hindlimb extension. The latter finding had important implications for the design and interpretation of the following lesion study. Injections of bicuculline into the dorsal midbrain also produced defence-like behavioural responses that included running and biting; the intensity of these responses correlated with the suppression of hindlimb extension.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Functional mapping of the late stages of status epilepticus in the lithium-pilocarpine model in rat: a 14C-2-deoxyglucose study

Pilocarpine administration to lithium chloride-pretreated rats results initially in discrete convulsive seizures, each behaviorally and electroencephalographically terminated, which then progress to convulsive activity with waxing-and-waning behavioral and electrographic severity; finally, a continuous convulsive state ensues, associated electrographically with continuous fast spiking. This stage does not last indefinitely but is followed by a dramatic electrographic change to periodic epileptiform discharges. The purpose of the present study was to determine with the 14C-2-deoxyglucose functional mapping technique what changes occur in the seizure anatomic substrate during and after this transition, in order to enable inferences about underlying mechanisms. Behavior associated with early and late continuous fast spiking consisted of head twitching; corresponding deoxyglucose autoradiographs displayed seizure-induced intense glucose utilization in most forebrain areas; extranigral brainstem was normal. At 2-3 h of status, fast spiking became interrupted by flat periods; periodic complexes soon dominated the electroencephalogram. Behaviorally, convulsive severity increased. Despite this dramatic electrographic evolution, little change in generalized forebrain metabolic hyperactivation occurred, except that the zona incerta/pretectal/superior colliculus complex displayed markedly increased activity. Deoxyglucose studies in late stages of periodic epileptiform discharges established a sequence of further changes. In late periodic discharges with clonic jerks, at 4 h after status entry, generalized forebrain hyperactivation still prevailed, but to a lesser degree than in early periodic discharges with clonic jerks. At a still later stage, late periodic discharges, subtle convulsive, autoradiographs revealed constriction of the seizure-activated anatomic substrate: hyperactivation was lost in most of neocortex and thalamus, and in caudal olfactory structures, cortical amygdala, and entorhinal areas, but retained in deep occipital cortex and many limbic areas. In the last stage, late periodic discharges, electrical, not associated with convulsive behavior, autoradiographs revealed residual activation in only Ammon's horn; in contrast, much of the forebrain displayed below-normal glucose utilization. These results demonstrate that in the later stages of status epilepticus, the transition from fast spiking to periodic complexes is not associated with a reduction in the seizure anatomic substrate. The electrographic entity of periodic epileptiform discharges is not anatomically or behaviorally homogeneous, but proceeds through successive stages characterized initially by a reduction of glucose utilization within generalized seizure-activated forebrain, then a contraction of the seizure anatomic substrate. Possible mechanisms underlying the transition to periodic complexes are discussed.

Bilateral intranigral NMDA blockade increases status duration and neuronal injury from systemic kainic acid

Limbic seizures may be under the regulation of the substantia nigra, pars reticulata (SNpr). Using microinjection of the NMDA antagonist AP7, we investigated the role of SNpr in modulating seizures induced by kainic acid. Seizure severity was analyzed electrographically and neural injury assessed by measurement of heat shock protein (HSP) expression and acid fuchsin (AF) staining of vulnerable hippocampal cells. Intranigral injection of AP-7 increased the duration of electrographic seizure discharges and the number of HSP-positive and acid fuchsin stained cells in all hippocampal sectors, suggesting that blockade of the NMDA receptors in SNpr enhanced neural injury.

Blockade of GABA receptors in superior colliculus protects against focally evoked limbic motor seizures

Blockade of GABA receptors in the rat superior colliculus (SC) has been shown to protect against maximal electroshock-induced tonic convulsions and spontaneous generalized non-convulsive seizures. In the present study, we determined that blockade of GABA receptors in SC could also protect against focally evoked limbic motor seizures. Limbic motor seizures were induced by the unilateral focal application of bicuculline methiodide into area tempestas (AT), an epileptogenic site in the deep prepiriform cortex. Control rats (receiving bilateral infusions of saline into SC) all exhibited convulsive seizures following bicuculline in AT. Rats pretreated (5 min before) with bicuculline (50 pmol) bilaterally in the deep layers of the SC, were protected against the AT-evoked convulsive seizures. Unilateral application of bicuculline in the deep SC or bilateral application in the superficial layers of the SC did not alter the convulsive response to bicuculline in AT. These results indicate that the anticonvulsant action of GABA blockade in SC is not limited to tonic convulsive seizures but extends to the clonic manifestations evoked by seizures originating in forebrain limbic circuits. Given that the deep layers of SC receive inputs from GABA neurons in substantia nigra and that suppression of the activity of nigral neurons is anticonvulsant against a variety of seizures (including those evoked from AT), it is likely that the anticonvulsant action of bicuculline in SC is due to interference with the influence of a nigrotectal GABAergic projection.

Infusion of bicuculline methiodide into the tectum: model specificity of pro- and anticonvulsant actions

Microinjection of drugs, such as muscimol, into the substantia nigra pars reticulata (SNpr) can inhibit several types of experimental seizures. Some findings suggested that this was a result of disinhibition of neurons receiving input from GABAergic nigrotectal cells. Indeed, it was reported that bicuculline methiodide (BMI), infused into the tectal region that was reported to receive nigral input, produced an anticonvulsant effect against maximal electroshock (MES) convulsion. Since previous work had suggested that the anticonvulsant effect of intranigral muscimol depended on the particular experimental seizure used, three different experimental seizures were used in the present study to evaluate the effects of BMI infusion into the tectum. Guide cannulas aimed at the tectal region receiving nigral innervation were stereotaxically implanted in rats a week before testing. Bilateral intratectal infusions of BMI (25 ng/side) had an anticonvulsant effect against MES convulsions, confirming a previous report. In contrast, the same BMI pretreatment worsened convulsions produced by either systemic pentylenetetrazol (40 mg/kg, i.p.) or bicuculline (0.5 mg/kg, i.v.). The effects of intratectal BMI were seizure model-dependent, suggesting different functional interconnections between tectum and those pathways responsible for generalization of MES as compared to PTZ or bicuculline convulsions.

The inhibitory control of the substantia nigra over generalized non-convulsive seizures in the rat

A system exerting inhibitory control over generalized epilepsies and involving neurons from the substantia nigra has been described by several authors in experimental models of convulsive seizures. In the present study, the existence of such a control system governing absence epilepsy was investigated using models of non-convulsive seizures in the rat. Activation of the GABAergic neurotransmission within the substantia nigra by local injection of GABA agonists (muscimol, THIP) or an inhibitor of GABA degradation (gamma-vinyl GABA) suppresses generalized non convulsive seizures, whether they are genetically determined or induced by systemic injections of gamma-butyrolactone (100 and 200 mg/kg), pentylenetetrazole (20 mg/kg) or THIP (7.5 mg/kg). The ascending dopaminergic nigral output or the GABAergic fibres to the ventromedial thalamus are not critically involved in this control system. By contrast, the GABAergic nigro-collicular pathway appears crucial: bilateral lesion of the superior colliculus abolishes the anti-epileptic effects of intranigral injection of muscimol and blockade of the GABAergic transmission within the superior colliculus results in a suppression of generalized non-convulsive seizures. Finally, activation of collicular cell bodies by low doses of kainic acid significantly suppresses absence seizures. These results suggest the existence of a control system inhibiting generalized non-convulsive seizures which is activated by the release of the tonic inhibition exerted by the nigral GABAergic fibres on collicular neurons. The similarities between this system and the control system described for convulsive seizures are discussed.

Anti-pentylenetetrazol effect of intranigral 2-amino-7-phosphonoheptanoate attenuated by muscimol

Bilateral injection of 2-amino-7-phosphonoheptanoate (2-APH), a selective N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonist, into substantia nigra pars reticulata (SNpr) significantly and dose-dependently suppressed tonic pentylenetetrazol (PTZ) seizures (100 mg/kg, i.p.). The results confirm the anticonvulsant effectiveness of 2-APH and the capacity of SNpr to modulate PTZ seizure activity. The anti-PTZ effect of 2-APH was significantly attenuated by muscimol, co-infused into SNpr. This result supports the hypothesis, drawn from earlier studies, that intranigral muscimol can interfere with the anti-PTZ actions of other intranigral treatments.

Evidence that superior colliculi are involved in the control of amygdala-kindled seizures

The effects of bilateral high radiofrequency lesions of superior colliculus (SC) were studied on amygdala kindling. The results demonstrate that a selective destruction of the SC only slightly facilitated the development of kindling. However, the most remarkable effect was the increase of afterdischarge and motor seizure duration observed when SC-lesioned animals reached the generalized seizures. These data confirm that the superior colliculi participate in controlling the generalization of kindled seizures.

Substantia nigra-mediated anticonvulsant action: a possible role of a dopaminergic component

A number of neural pathways may mediate nigral control of epilepsy. According to the literature, a GABAergic nigrotectal pathway may be responsible for the control exerted by the substantia nigra on the diffusion of discharges toward spinal targets, while the nigrothalamic projection may transfer nigral influence on premotor neocortical epilepsy. Since there is probably an anatomical nigrohippocampal pathway arising from dopaminergic cells in the substantia nigra, we tested the effects of stimulating the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc) on focal hippocampal epilepsy induced by penicillin injection in the cat. The possibility of dopamine involvement was further tested by studying the effects of intraperitoneal injection of haloperidol, a dopamine receptor blocking agent on nigrohippocampal influences, while to verify the precise site of action, in other groups of cats, sulpiride and apomorphine (D-receptor antagonist and agonist, respectively) were locally administered in the dorsal hippocampus. Furthermore, modifications of hippocampal epileptiform EEG were studied in control conditions and following SNpc electrolytic lesions. Results showed a strong nigral suppressive effect on focal hippocampal epilepsy. Nigral stimulation induced a significant decrease in both frequency and amplitude of hippocampal spikes, which disappeared either about 10 min after i.p. injection of haloperidol 1 mg/kg or about 5 min after intrahippocampal administration of sulpiride, and did not return during a further hour or more of experimental observation. It should be emphasized that in the absence of nigral stimulation, both haloperidol and sulpiride did not modify hippocampal spike frequency. Apomorphine application to dorsal hippocampus induced a marked reduction of hippocampal epileptiform activity parallel to the effect observed during SNpc stimulation.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

The GABAergic nigro-collicular pathway is not involved in the inhibitory control of audiogenic seizures in the rat

Involvement of the GABAergic nigro-collicular pathway in the control of audiogenic seizures was examined in genetically sensitive rats by studying the effects of bilateral injections into the substantia nigra of muscimol, a gamma-Aminobutyric acid (GABA) agonist, and those of bilateral injections into the superior colliculus of picrotoxin, a GABA antagonist, and of muscimol. Microinjections of muscimol (20-80 ng/side) into the substantia nigra and microinjections into the superior colliculus of picrotoxin (20 and 40 ng/side) both failed to suppress audiogenic seizures. Following injections into the superior colliculus, audiogenic seizures were in fact facilitated by picrotoxin and suppressed by muscimol. These results suggest that the nigro-collicular GABAergic pathway is not involved in the inhibitory control over audiogenic seizures. Conversely, a different GABAergic mechanisms may be involved in the superior colliculus in the control of this form of epilepsy.

Suppression of spontaneous generalized non-convulsive seizures in the rat by microinjection of GABA antagonists into the superior colliculus

Intranigral injections of GABA agonists suppress spontaneous and chemically induced generalized non-convulsive seizures in the rat. In order to examine whether the GABAergic nigrotectal pathway could be involved in this suppression, bilateral injections of GABA antagonists were performed in the superior colliculus of rats with spontaneous generalized non-convulsive seizures. Bilateral microinjections into this structure of the GABA antagonists picrotoxin (20 and 40 ng/side) and bicuculline methiodide (5 ng/side) suppressed spike-and-wave discharges for 40 min and 20 min post injection, respectively. Unilateral injections of picrotoxin (40 ng) into the superior colliculus as well as bilateral injections of a GABA agonist (muscimol; 80 ng) did not induce significant modifications. These results show that blockade of the GABAergic transmission at the level of the superior colliculus results in a suppression of generalized non-convulsive seizures. These data support the hypothesis that the suppressive effect of intranigral injections of GABA agonists over generalized non-convulsive seizures involves, at least in part, the nigrotectal GABAergic pathway.

Involvement of the nigral output pathways in the inhibitory control of the substantia nigra over generalized non-convulsive seizures in the rat

Activation of GABAergic transmission within the substantia nigra has been shown to suppress several forms of generalized seizures in experimental models of epilepsy. More especially, such pharmacological manipulations suppress spontaneous and chemically-induced generalized non-convulsive seizures in the rat. The aim of the present study was to examine the role of the dopaminergic and GABAergic thalamic and collicular nigral outputs in this antiepileptic effect. For this purpose, we examined the effects of output destruction on the antiepileptic effect of intranigral injections of a GABA agonist or pharmacological blockade of the neurotransmission at the nerve terminal level in rats with spontaneous absence seizures. After selective destruction of dopaminergic neurons within the substantia nigra with 6-hydroxydopamine (5 micrograms/side) or hemisection of the ascending nigral output, bilateral intranigral injection of muscimol (2 ng/side) still significantly suppressed generalized non-convulsive seizures. Bilateral lesioning of the ventromedial nucleus of the thalamus did not abolish the antiepileptic effects of intranigral muscimol (2 ng/side) and the GABA antagonist, picrotoxin, when given into this thalamic nucleus (10 ng/side) also failed to induce suppression of spike and wave discharges. The antiepileptic effects of intranigral injection of muscimol (2 ng/side) was reversed by bilateral electrolytic lesions of the superior colliculus. Blockade of the GABAergic transmission at this level with picrotoxin (40 ng/side) significantly suppressed generalized non-convulsive seizures. Finally, excitation of collicular cell bodies with low doses of kainic acid (4 and 8 ng/side) also resulted in a suppression of spike and wave discharges. These results demonstrate that the GABAergic nigrocollicular pathway is critical for the inhibitory control of the substantia nigra over generalized non-convulsive seizures. The data further suggest that antiepileptic effects observed following potentiation of GABAergic transmission in the substantia nigra result from a disinhibition of collicular cell bodies.