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Regan J, Smalley M. Prospective isolation and functional analysis of stem and differentiated cells from the mouse mammary gland. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2007; 3:124-36. [PMID: 17873345 DOI: 10.1007/s12015-007-0017-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/1999] [Revised: 11/30/1999] [Accepted: 11/30/1999] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Prospective isolation and in vitro and in vivo analysis of primary mouse mammary epithelial cells has been used to separate cell subpopulations and identify stem, progenitor and differentiated cell compartments. Progress has been made from cell separation strategies based on a single marker of the luminal epithelial or myoepithelial compartments to use of markers that allow simultaneous isolation of non-epithelial, basal/myoepithelial and luminal epithelial cells. Transplant analysis has shown that mammary stem cells are found in the basal/myoepithelial compartment, whereas in vitro colony progenitors are found in the luminal compartment. A basal population enriched for stem cell activity can be purified from the myoepithelial cells and the most recent data shows that the luminal population can now be prospectively split into estrogen receptor positive and estrogen receptor negative cells. Future work aims to molecularly characterise these populations to identify new drug targets, which can be used to specifically kill breast cancer stem cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph Regan
- The Breakthrough Breast Cancer Research Centre, Institute of Cancer Research, 237 Fulham Road, London, SW3 6JB, UK
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2
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Fata JE, Werb Z, Bissell MJ. Regulation of mammary gland branching morphogenesis by the extracellular matrix and its remodeling enzymes. Breast Cancer Res 2003; 6:1-11. [PMID: 14680479 PMCID: PMC314442 DOI: 10.1186/bcr634] [Citation(s) in RCA: 233] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
A considerable body of research indicates that mammary gland branching morphogenesis is dependent, in part, on the extracellular matrix (ECM), ECM-receptors, such as integrins and other ECM receptors, and ECM-degrading enzymes, including matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and their inhibitors, tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs). There is some evidence that these ECM cues affect one or more of the following processes: cell survival, polarity, proliferation, differentiation, adhesion, and migration. Both three-dimensional culture models and genetic manipulations of the mouse mammary gland have been used to study the signaling pathways that affect these processes. However, the precise mechanisms of ECM-directed mammary morphogenesis are not well understood. Mammary morphogenesis involves epithelial 'invasion' of adipose tissue, a process akin to invasion by breast cancer cells, although the former is a highly regulated developmental process. How these morphogenic pathways are integrated in the normal gland and how they become dysregulated and subverted in the progression of breast cancer also remain largely unanswered questions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jimmie E Fata
- Life Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Zena Werb
- Department of Anatomy, University of California, San Francisco CA, USA
| | - Mina J Bissell
- Life Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, USA
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Rodeheffer C, Shur BD. Targeted mutations in beta1,4-galactosyltransferase I reveal its multiple cellular functions. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA 2002; 1573:258-70. [PMID: 12417408 DOI: 10.1016/s0304-4165(02)00392-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Beta1,4-galactosyltransferase I (GalT I) is one of the most extensively studied glycosyltransferases. It is localized in the trans-Golgi compartment of most eukaryotic cells, where it participates in the elongation of oligosaccharide chains on glycoproteins and glycolipids. GalT I has also been reported in non-Golgi locations, most notably the cell surface, where it has been suggested to function non-biosynthetically as a receptor for extracellular glycoside substrates. Cloning of the GalT I cDNAs revealed that the gene encodes two similar proteins that differ only in the length of their cytoplasmic domains. Whether these different GalT I proteins, or isoforms, have similar or different biological roles is a matter of active investigation. The functions of the GalT I proteins have been addressed by targeted mutations that eliminate either both GalT I isoforms or just the long GalT I isoform. Eliminating both GalT I proteins abolishes most, but not all, GalT activity, an observation that led to the realization that other GalT family members must exist. The loss of both GalT I isoforms leads to neonatal lethality due to a wide range of phenotypic abnormalities that are most likely the result of decreased galactosylation. When the long isoform of GalT I is eliminated, galactosylation proceeds grossly normal via the short GalT I isoform, but specific defects in cell interactions occur that are thought to depend upon a non-biosynthetic function of the long GalT I isoform.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carey Rodeheffer
- Department of Cell Biology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
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Steffgen K, Dufraux K, Hathaway H. Enhanced branching morphogenesis in mammary glands of mice lacking cell surface beta1,4-galactosyltransferase. Dev Biol 2002; 244:114-33. [PMID: 11900463 DOI: 10.1006/dbio.2002.0599] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Development of the mammary gland is influenced both by the systemic hormonal environment and locally through cell-cell and cell-extracellular matrix (ECM) interactions. We have previously demonstrated aberrant mammary gland morphogenesis in transgenic mice with elevated levels of the long isoform of beta1,4-galactosyltransferase 1 (GalT), a proportion of which is targeted to the plasma membrane, where it plays a role in cell-ECM interactions. Here, we show that mammary glands of mice lacking the long GalT isoform exhibit a complementary phenotype. Cell-surface GalT activity was reduced by over 60%, but because the short GalT isoform is intact, total GalT activity was reduced only slightly relative to wild type. Mammary glands from long GalT-null mice were characterized by excess branching, and this phenotype was accompanied by altered expression of laminin chains. Laminin alpha1 and alpha3 were reduced 2.4- and 3.0-fold, respectively, while expression of laminin gamma2 was elevated 2.3-fold. The expression and cleavage of laminin gamma2 have been correlated with branching and cell migration, and Western blotting revealed an altered pattern in gamma2 cleavage products in long GalT-null mammary glands. We then examined the expression of metalloproteases that cleave laminins or that have been shown to play a role in mammary gland morphogenesis. Expression of MT1-MMP, a membrane-bound protease that can cleave laminin gamma2, was elevated 5.5-fold in the long GalT-nulls. MMP 7 was also elevated 5.1-fold. Our results suggest that expression of surface GalT is important for the proper regulation of matrix expression and deposition, which in turn regulates the proper branching morphogenesis of the mammary epithelial ductal system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristin Steffgen
- Department of Cell Biology and Physiology, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87131, USA
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Lamb J, Ladha MH, McMahon C, Sutherland RL, Ewen ME. Regulation of the functional interaction between cyclin D1 and the estrogen receptor. Mol Cell Biol 2000; 20:8667-75. [PMID: 11073968 PMCID: PMC86475 DOI: 10.1128/mcb.20.23.8667-8675.2000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
We report that the functional interaction between cyclin D1 and the estrogen receptor (ER) is regulated by a signal transduction pathway involving the second messenger, cyclic AMP (cAMP). The cell-permeable cAMP analogue 8-bromo-cAMP caused a concentration-dependent enhancement of cyclin D1-ER complex formation, as judged both by coimmunoprecipitation and mammalian two-hybrid analysis. This effect was paralleled by increases in ligand-independent ER-mediated transcription from an estrogen response element containing reporter construct. These effects of 8-bromo-cAMP were antagonized by a specific protein kinase A (PKA) inhibitor, indicating that the signaling pathway involved was PKA dependent. Further, we show that culture of MCF-7 cells on a cellular substratum of murine preadipocytes also enhanced the functional interaction between cyclin D1 and ER in a PKA-dependent manner. These findings demonstrate a collaboration between cAMP signaling and cyclin D1 in the ligand-independent activation of ER-mediated transcription in mammary epithelial cells and show that the functional associations of cyclin D1 are regulated as a function of cellular context.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Lamb
- Dana-Farber Cancer Institute and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA
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Burkart MD, Vincent SP, Düffels A, Murray BW, Ley SV, Wong CH. Chemo-enzymatic synthesis of fluorinated sugar nucleotide: useful mechanistic probes for glycosyltransferases. Bioorg Med Chem 2000; 8:1937-46. [PMID: 11003139 DOI: 10.1016/s0968-0896(00)00139-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
An effective procedure for the synthesis of 2-deoxy-2-fluoro-sugar nucleotides via Select fluor-mediated electrophilic fluorination of glycals with concurrent nucleophilic addition or chemo-enzymatic transformation has been developed, and the fluorinated sugar nucleotides have been used as probes for glycosyltransferases, including fucosyltransferase III, V, VI, and VII, and sialyl transferases. In general, these fluorinated sugar nucleotides act as competitive inhibitors versus sugar nucleotide substrates and form a tight complex with the glycosyltransferase.
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Affiliation(s)
- M D Burkart
- Department of Chemistry and The Skaggs Institute for Chemical Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
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Smalley MJ, Titley J, Paterson H, Perusinghe N, Clarke C, O'Hare MJ. Differentiation of separated mouse mammary luminal epithelial and myoepithelial cells cultured on EHS matrix analyzed by indirect immunofluorescence of cytoskeletal antigens. J Histochem Cytochem 1999; 47:1513-24. [PMID: 10567435 DOI: 10.1177/002215549904701203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
We have previously demonstrated that purified virgin mouse mammary luminal epithelial and myoepithelial cells promiscuously express cell type-specific cytokeratins when they are cloned in vitro. Changes in cytokeratin expression may be indicators of the loss or change of the differentiated identity of a cell. To investigate the factors that may be responsible for the maintenance of differentiated cellular identity, specifically cell-cell and cell-matrix interactions, we cloned flow-sorted mouse mammary epithelial cells on the extracellular matrix (ECM) derived from the Engelbreth-Holm-Swarm murine sarcoma (EHS matrix). Changes in cell differentiation on EHS, compared with culture on glass, were analyzed by comparing patterns of cytokeratin expression. The results indicate that ECM is responsible for maintenance of the differentiated identity of basal/myoepithelial cells and prevents the inappropriate expression of luminal antigens seen on glass or plastic. Luminal cell identity in the form of retention of luminal markers and absence of basal/myoepithelial antigens, on the contrary, appears to depend on homotypic cell-cell contacts and interactions. The results also show that luminal cells (or a subpopulation of them) can generate a cell layer that expresses only basal cytokeratin markers (and no luminal cytokeratin markers) and may form a pluripotent compartment. (J Histochem Cytochem 47:1513-1524, 1999)
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Affiliation(s)
- M J Smalley
- Sections of Cell Biology and Experimental Pathology, Institute of Cancer Research, Chester Beatty Laboratories, London, United Kingdom.
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Takayama S, Chung SJ, Igarashi Y, Ichikawa Y, Sepp A, Lechler RI, Wu J, Hayashi T, Siuzdak G, Wong CH. Selective inhibition of beta-1,4- and alpha-1,3-galactosyltransferases: donor sugar-nucleotide based approach. Bioorg Med Chem 1999; 7:401-9. [PMID: 10218835 DOI: 10.1016/s0968-0896(98)00249-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
A combined rational and library approach was used to identify bisphosphonates (IC50 = 20 microM) and galactose type 1-N-iminosugar (IC50=45 microM) as novel motifs for selective inhibition of beta-1,4-galactosyltransferase (beta-1,4-GalT) and alpha-1,3-galactosyltransferase (alpha-1,3-GalT), respectively. Our results demonstrate that, though these two galactosyltransferases both utilize the same donor sugar-nucleotide (UDP-Gal), the difference in their mechanisms can be utilized to design donor sugar or nucleotide analogues with inhibitory activities selective for only one of the galactosyltransferases. Investigation of beta-1,4-GalT inhibition using UDP-2-deoxy-2-fluorogalactose (UDP-2-F-Gal), UDP, and bisphosphonates, also led to the observation of metal dependent inhibition of beta-1,4-GalT. These observations and the novel inhibitor motifs identified in this study pave the way for the design and identification of even more potent and selective galactosyltransferase inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Takayama
- Department of Chemistry and The Skaggs Institute for Chemical Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
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Hathaway HJ, Shur BD. Mammary gland morphogenesis is inhibited in transgenic mice that overexpress cell surface beta1,4-galactosyltransferase. Development 1996; 122:2859-72. [PMID: 8787759 DOI: 10.1242/dev.122.9.2859] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Mammary gland morphogenesis is facilitated by a precise sequence of cell-cell and cell-matrix interactions, which are mediated in part through a variety of cell surface receptors and their ligands (Boudreau, N., Myers, C. and Bissell, M. J. (1995). Trends in Cell Biology 5, 1–4). Cell surface beta1,4-galactosyltransferase (GalTase) is one receptor that participates in a variety of cell-cell and cell-matrix interactions during fertilization and development, including mammary epithelial cell-matrix interactions (Barcellos-Hoff, M. H. (1992). Exp. Cell Res. 201, 225–234). To analyze GalTase function during mammary gland morphogenesis in vivo, we created transgenic animals that overexpress the long isoform of GalTase under the control of a heterologous promoter. As expected, mammary epithelial cells from transgenic animals had 2.3 times more GalTase activity on their cell surface than did wild-type cells. Homozygous transgenic females from multiple independent lines failed to lactate, whereas transgenic mice overexpressing the Golgi-localized short isoform of GalTase lactated normally. Glands from transgenic females overexpressing surface GalTase were characterized by abnormal and reduced ductal development with a concomitant reduction in alveolar expansion during pregnancy. The phenotype was not due to a defect in proliferation, since the mitotic index for transgenic and wild-type glands was similar. Morphological changes were accompanied by a dramatic reduction in the expression of milk-specific proteins. Immunohistochemical markers for epithelia and myoepithelia demonstrated that both cell types were present. To better understand how overexpression of surface GalTase impairs ductal morphogenesis, primary mammary epithelial cultures were established on basement membranes. Cultures derived from transgenic mammary glands were unable to form anastomosing networks of epithelial cells and failed to express milk-specific proteins, unlike wild-type mammary cultures that formed epithelial tubules and expressed milk proteins. Our results suggest that cell surface GalTase is an important mediator of mammary cell interaction with the extracellular matrix. Furthermore, perturbing surface GalTase levels inhibits the expression of mammary-specific gene products, implicating GalTase as a component of a receptor-mediated signal transduction pathway required for normal mammary gland differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- H J Hathaway
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The University of Texas M.D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston 77030, USA
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Cooke SV, Shur BD. Cell Surface beta1,4-Galactosyltransferase: Expression and Function. (cell surface galactosyltransferase/cell interactions/fertilization/migration/adhesion). Dev Growth Differ 1994. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1440-169x.1994.00125.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Shintani Y, Bamba T, Inoue H, Hosoda S. Effect of reconstituted basement membrane on growth and secretory function in pancreatic acinar AR42J cells. GASTROENTEROLOGIA JAPONICA 1993; 28:393-400. [PMID: 7688330 DOI: 10.1007/bf02776984] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
This study investigated the influence of extracellular matrix on growth and secretory function associated with cholecystokinin (CCK) receptors in pancreatic acinar AR42J cells, using reconstituted basement membrane derived from Engelbreth-Holm-Swarm (EHS) tumor. The cells were cultured with basement membranes of two different thickness, 1 mg/ml protein equivalent (thick RBM) and 50 micrograms/ml protein equivalent (thin RBM). In cells cultured with thin RBM, the secretory function and the number of CCK receptors increased, but cell growth did not increase significantly. Cells cultured with thick RBM showed remarkable cell growth, but secretory function and the number of CCK receptors were reduced. There was little change in CCK receptor affinity. It was concluded that the extracellular matrix plays a crucial role in the proliferation and differentiation of AR42J cells and further, the quantitative difference of matrix components strongly influenced the up- and down-regulation of CCK receptor in the cells via cell-matrix interaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Shintani
- Department of Internal Medicine, Shiga University of Medical Science, Otsu, Japan
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Abstract
Glycoproteins are widely distributed among species in soluble and membrane-bound forms, associated with many different functions. The heterogenous sugar moieties of glycoproteins are assembled in the endoplasmic reticulum and in the Golgi and are implicated in many roles that require further elucidation. Glycoprotein-bound oligosaccharides show significant changes in their structures and relative occurrences during growth, development, and differentiation. Diverse alterations of these carbohydrate chains occur in diseases such as cancer, metastasis, leukemia, inflammatory, and other diseases. Structural alterations may correlate with activities of glycosyltransferases that assemble glycans, but often the biochemical origin of these changes remains unclear. This suggests a multitude of biosynthetic control mechanisms that are functional in vivo but have not yet been unraveled by in vitro studies. The multitude of carbohydrate alterations observed in disease states may not be the primary cause but may reflect the growth and biochemical activity of the affected cell. However, knowledge of the control mechanisms in the biosynthesis of glycoprotein glycans may be helpful in understanding, diagnosing, and treating disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- I Brockhausen
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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