1
|
Zhao J, Wang J, Liu J, Zhang P, Kudoyarova G, Liu CJ, Zhang K. Spatially distributed cytokinins: Metabolism, signaling, and transport. PLANT COMMUNICATIONS 2024:100936. [PMID: 38689499 DOI: 10.1016/j.xplc.2024.100936] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2023] [Revised: 04/25/2024] [Accepted: 04/28/2024] [Indexed: 05/02/2024]
Abstract
Cytokinins are mobile phytohormones that regulate plant growth, development, and environmental adaptability. The major cytokinin species include isopentenyl adenine (iP), trans-zeatin (tZ), cis-zeatin (cZ), and dihydrozeatin (DZ). The spatial distributions of different cytokinin species in different organelles, cells, tissues, and organs are primarily shaped by biosynthesis via isopentenyltransferases (IPT), cytochrome P450 monooxygenase, and 5'-ribonucleotide phosphohydrolase and by conjugation or catabolism via glycosyltransferase or cytokinin oxidase/dehydrogenase. Cytokinins bind to histidine receptor kinases in the endoplasmic reticulum or plasma membrane and relay signals to response regulators in the nucleus via shuttle proteins known as histidine phosphotransfer proteins. The movements of cytokinins from sites of biosynthesis to sites of signal perception usually require long-distance, intercellular, and intracellular transport. In the past decade, ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters, purine permeases (PUP), AZA-GUANINE RESISTANT (AZG) transporters, equilibrative nucleoside transporters (ENT), and Sugars Will Eventually Be Exported transporters (SWEET) have been characterized as involved in cytokinin transport processes. This review begins by introducing the spatial distributions of various cytokinins and the subcellular localizations of the proteins involved in their metabolism and signaling. Highlights focus on an inventory of the characterized transporters involved in cytokinin compartmentalization, including long-distance, intercellular, and intracellular transport, and the regulation of the spatial distributions of cytokinins by environmental cues. Future directions for cytokinin research are also discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jiangzhe Zhao
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Biotechnology on Specialty Economic Plants, College of Life Sciences, Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua, Zhejiang 321004, P.R. China
| | - Jingqi Wang
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Biotechnology on Specialty Economic Plants, College of Life Sciences, Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua, Zhejiang 321004, P.R. China
| | - Jie Liu
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Biotechnology on Specialty Economic Plants, College of Life Sciences, Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua, Zhejiang 321004, P.R. China
| | - Penghong Zhang
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Biotechnology on Specialty Economic Plants, College of Life Sciences, Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua, Zhejiang 321004, P.R. China
| | - Guzel Kudoyarova
- Ufa Institute of Biology, Ufa Federal Research Center, RAS, Prospekt Oktyabrya 69, Ufa 450054, Russia
| | - Chang-Jun Liu
- Biology Department, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, NY 11973, USA
| | - Kewei Zhang
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Biotechnology on Specialty Economic Plants, College of Life Sciences, Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua, Zhejiang 321004, P.R. China.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Jameson PE. Zeatin: The 60th anniversary of its identification. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2023; 192:34-55. [PMID: 36789623 PMCID: PMC10152681 DOI: 10.1093/plphys/kiad094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2022] [Revised: 02/06/2023] [Accepted: 02/08/2023] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
While various labs had shown cell division-inducing activity in a variety of plant extracts for over a decade, the identification of zeatin (Z) in 1964, the first known naturally occurring cytokinin, belongs to Letham and co-workers. Using extracts from maize (Zea mays), they were the first to obtain crystals of pure Z and in sufficient quantity for structural determination by MS, NMR, chromatography, and mixed melting-point analysis. This group also crystallized Z-9-riboside (ZR) from coconut (Cocos nucifera) milk. However, their chemical contributions go well beyond the identification of Z and ZR and include two unambiguous syntheses of trans-Z (to establish stereochemistry), the synthesis of 3H-cytokinins that facilitated metabolic studies, and the synthesis of deuterated internal standards for accurate mass spectral quantification. Letham and associates also unequivocally identified Z nucleotide, the 7-and 9-glucoside conjugates of Z, and the O-glucosides of Z, ZR, dihydro Z (DHZ) and DHZR as endogenous compounds and as metabolites of exogenous Z. Their contributions to the role of cytokinins in plant physiology and development were also substantial, especially the role of cytokinins moving in the xylem. These biological advances are described and briefly related to the genetic/molecular biological contributions of others that established that plants have an absolute requirement for cytokinin.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Paula Elizabeth Jameson
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Canterbury, Private Bag 4800, Christchurch 8140, New Zealand
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Béres T, Gemrotová M, Tarkowski P, Ganzera M, Maier V, Friedecký D, Dessoy MA, Wessjohann LA, Spíchal L, Strnad M, Doležal K. Analysis of cytokinin nucleotides by capillary zone electrophoresis with diode array and mass spectrometric detection in a recombinant enzyme in vitro reaction. Anal Chim Acta 2012; 751:176-81. [PMID: 23084068 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2012.08.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2012] [Revised: 08/20/2012] [Accepted: 08/22/2012] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
A capillary zone electrophoresis (CZE) method for separation of adenosine and N(6)-isopentenyladenosine (cytokinin) nucleotides was developed, optimized and validated. Aqueous solutions of several amino acids were evaluated as the background electrolyte constituents. Separation of six nucleotides in less than 20 min with high theoretical plate number (up to 400000 for isopentenyladenosine triphosphate) was achieved using a 100 mM sarcosine/ammonia buffer at pH 10.0. The detection limits of the CZE-UV method are in the low micromolar range (0.69-1.27 μmol L(-1)). Good repeatability of migration times (within 1.3%), peak areas (within 1.8%) and linearity (R(2)>0.999) was achieved over the concentration range 5-1000 μmol L(-1). The method was used to assay the activity of the recombinant Arabidopsis thaliana isopentenyltransferase 1 (AtIPT1). Baseline separation of isopentenylated nucleotides by CE-ESI-MS using a volatile buffer (30 mM ammonium formate; pH 10.0) was accomplished. The identities of the reaction products - isopentenyladenosine di- and triphosphate were confirmed by HPLC-QqTOF-MS. Dephosphorylation of ATP was observed as a parallel reaction.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tibor Béres
- Laboratory of Growth Regulators, Institute of Experimental Botany ASCR, Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
5
|
Ernst D, Oesterhelt D. Changes of cytokinin nucleotides in an anise cell culture (Pimpinella anisum L.) during growth and embryogenesis. PLANT CELL REPORTS 1985; 4:140-143. [PMID: 24253746 DOI: 10.1007/bf00571301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/1984] [Revised: 03/29/1985] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Endogenous levels of cytokinin nucleotides in an anise cell culture were determined during proembryonal, as well as embryonal development. In both cultures the maximum level of isopentenyladenine nucleotides was found during the first four days of incubation which correlated with the beginning of logarithmic growth (embryonal: 8 ng g(-1) tresh weight; proembryonal: 17.4 ng g(-1) fresh weight). The concentration of zeatin nucleotides remained constant at a very low level. The present data and those of Ernst et al. (1984) and Ernst and Oesterhelt (1984) are concerned in ascribing a major role to cytokinins in cell division, but not in embryo differentiation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- D Ernst
- Max-Planck-Institut für Biochemie, D-8033, Martinsried, FRG
| | | |
Collapse
|
6
|
Scott IM, Horgan R. Mass-spectrometric quantification of cytokinin nucleotides and glycosides in tobacco crown-gall tissue. PLANTA 1984; 161:345-354. [PMID: 24253724 DOI: 10.1007/bf00398725] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/1983] [Accepted: 02/16/1984] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
the cytokinins of tobacco crown-gall tissue have been analysed by quantitative mass spectrometry using (2)H2-labelled cytokinin riboside 5'-monophosphates and (15)N4-labelled cytokinin glycosides as internal standards. The principal endogenous cytokinin of this tissue is zeatin riboside 5'-monophosphate. The biologically inactive 7-glucoside of zeatin is the most abundant basic cytokinin in the tissue. These findings expose the limitations of previously reported analyses of similar tissues, which were restricted to biologically active basic cytokinins. The present study demonstrates that the endogenous cytokinins of tobacco crowngall tissue show a clear correspondence to the range of metabolites formed when exogenous cytokinins are supplied to nontumorous tobacco cells.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- I M Scott
- Department of Botany and Microbiology, University College of Wales, SY23 3DA, Aberystwyth, Dyfed, UK
| | | |
Collapse
|
9
|
Laloue M, Pethe-Terrine C, Guern J. Uptake and Metabolism of Cytokinins in Tobacco Cells: Studies in Relation to the Expression of Their Biological Activities. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1981. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-68035-9_8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/29/2023]
|
13
|
Gawer M, Laloue M, Terrine C, Guern J. Metabolism and biological significance of benzyladenine-7-glucoside. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1977. [DOI: 10.1016/0304-4211(77)90192-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
|
14
|
Laloue M. Cytokinins: 7-glucosylation is not a prerequisite of the expression of their biological activity. PLANTA 1977; 134:273-275. [PMID: 24419782 DOI: 10.1007/bf00384193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/1976] [Accepted: 12/03/1976] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
(14)C-labelled benzyladenine-7-glucoside (0.57 μM) supplied to cytokinin-requiring Nicotiana tabacum (cv. Wisconsin 38) cells cultivated in liquid medium was slowly absorbed and resulted in rather large intracellular quantities of benzyladenine-7-glucoside (30 pmol/10(5) cells) but did not show any biological activity, while 0.01 μM benzyladenosine induced cell division. In this case the resulting intracellular quantity of benzyladenine-7-glucoside formed was 3.3 pmol/10(5) cells. Also, N(6)-(Δ(2)-isopentenyl)adenosine induced cell division in these tobacco suspensions without being significantly 7-glucosylated. These data provide strong evidence that the 7-glucosylation of cytokinins is not a prerequisite of the expression of their biological activity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M Laloue
- Laboratoire de Physiologie végétale, Service des Hormones végétales, t.53.E.3., Université Pierre et Marie Curie, 4, place Jussieu, F-75230, Paris Cédex 05, France
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Abstract
Cells possess extraordinary powers to organize their molecular processes not only to maintain a cell in a given steady state but also to recognize that state during differentiation. Regulation of these organizational forces appears to be under the control of chemical factors, and a hormonal concept of regulation has evolved. Hormones have been considered to act by reacting with a specific target site. This may be part of their mode of action, 0ut i would like to suggest that a hormone enters and becomes part of a total molecular resonance system. In so doing, the entire molecular system of the cell is modified.
Collapse
|
16
|
Hecht SM, Frye RB, Werner D, Hawrelak SD, Skoog F, Schmitz RY. On the "activation" of cytokinins. J Biol Chem 1975. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(19)40950-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
|