G-proteins in etiolated Avena seedlings. Possible phytochrome regulation

Moving beyond the arabidopsis-centric view of G-protein signaling in plants

Heterotrimeric G-protein-mediated signaling is a key mechanism to transduce a multitude of endogenous and environmental signals in diverse organisms. The scope and expectations of plant G-protein research were set by pioneering work in metazoans. Given the similarity of the core constituents, G-protein-signaling mechanisms were presumed to be universally conserved. However, because of the enormous diversity of survival strategies and endless forms among eukaryotes, the signal, its interpretation, and responses vary even among different plant groups. Earlier G-protein research in arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) has emphasized its divergence from Metazoa. Here, we compare recent evidence from diverse plant lineages with the available arabidopsis G-protein model and discuss the conserved and novel protein components, signaling mechanisms, and response regulation.

Emerging themes in heterotrimeric G-protein signaling in plants

Heterotrimeric G-proteins are key signaling components involved during the regulation of a multitude of growth and developmental pathways in all eukaryotes. Although the core proteins (Gα, Gβ, Gγ subunits) and their basic biochemistries are conserved between plants and non-plant systems, seemingly different inherent properties of specific components, altered wirings of G-protein network architectures, and the presence of novel receptors and effector proteins make plant G-protein signaling mechanisms somewhat distinct from the well-established animal paradigm. G-protein research in plants is getting a lot of attention recently due to the emerging roles of these proteins in controlling many agronomically important traits. New findings on both canonical and novel G-protein components and their conserved and unique signaling mechanisms are expected to improve our understanding of this important module in affecting critical plant growth and development pathways and eventually their utilization to produce plants for the future needs. In this review, we briefly summarize what is currently known in plant G-protein research, describe new findings and how they are changing our perceptions of the field, and discuss important issues that still need to be addressed.

cry1 and GPA1 signaling genetically interact in hook opening and anthocyanin synthesis in Arabidopsis

While studying blue light-independent effects of cryptochrome 1 (cry1) photoreceptor, we observed premature opening of the hook in cry1 mutants grown in complete darkness, a phenotype that resembles the one described for the heterotrimeric G-protein α subunit (GPA1) null mutant gpa1. Both cry1 and gpa1 also showed reduced accumulation of anthocyanin under blue light. These convergent gpa1 and cry1 phenotypes required the presence of sucrose in the growth media and were not additive in the cry1 gpa1 double mutant, suggesting context-dependent signaling convergence between cry1 and GPA1 signaling pathways. Both, gpa1 and cry1 mutants showed reduced GTP-binding activity. The cry1 mutant showed wild-type levels of GPA1 mRNA or GPA1 protein. However, an anti-transducin antibody (AS/7) typically used for plant Gα proteins, recognized a 54 kDa band in the wild type but not in gpa1 and cry1 mutants. We propose a model where cry1-mediated post-translational modification of GPA1 alters its GTP-binding activity.

Arabidopsis nucleoside diphosphate kinase-2 as a plant GTPase activating protein

Nucleoside diphosphate kinase (NDPK) is involved in multiple signaling pathways in mammalian systems, including G-protein signaling. Arabidopsis NDPK2, like its mammalian counterparts, is multifunctional despite its initial discovery phytochrome-interacting protein. This similarity raises the possibility that NDPK2 may play a role in G-protein signaling in plants. In the present study, we explore the potential relationship between NDPK2 and the small G proteins, Pra2 and Pra3, as well as the heterotrimeric G protein, GPA1. We report a physical interaction between NDPK2 and these small G proteins, and demonstrate that NDPK2 can stimulate their GTPase activities. Our results suggest that NDPK2 acts as a GTPase-activating protein for small G proteins in plants. We propose that NDPK2 might be a missing link between the phytochromemediated light signaling and G protein-mediated signaling.

Involvement of G proteins in the mycelial photoresponses of Phycomyces

Many responses of the zygomycete fungus Phycomyces blakesleeanus are mediated by blue light, e.g. the stimulation of beta-carotene synthesis (photocarotenogenesis) and the formation of fruiting bodies (photomorphogenesis). Even though both responses have been described in detail genetically and biophysically, the underlying molecular events remain unknown. Applying a pharmacological approach in developing mycelia, we investigated the possible involvement of heterotrimeric G proteins in the blue-light transduction chains of both responses. G protein agonists (guanosine triphosphate analogues, cholera toxin, pertussis toxin) mimicked in darkness the effect of blue light for both responses, except for cholera toxin, which was ineffective in increasing the beta-carotene content of dark-grown mycelia. Experiments combining the two toxins indicated that photocarotenogenesis could involve an inhibitory G protein (Gi) type, whereas photomorphogenesis may depend on a transducin (Gt type)-like heterotrimer. The determination of the carB (phytoene dehydrogenase) and chs1 (chitin synthase 1) gene expression under various conditions of exogenous challenge supports the G protein participation. The fluctuations of the time course measurements of the carB and chs1 transcripts are discussed.

FIN5 positively regulates far-red light responses in Arabidopsis thaliana

We report the characterization of a semi-dominant mutation fin5-1 (far-red insensitive 5-1) of Arabidopsis, which was isolated from genetic screening of phytochrome A (phyA) signaling components. Plants with the fin5-1 mutation exhibited a long hypocotyl phenotype when grown under far-red (FR) light, but not under red light. Physiological analyses implied that FIN5 might be differentially involved in diverse responses that are regulated by phyA under continuous FR light. Anthocyanin accumulation, gravitropic response of hypocotyl growth, and FR light-preconditioned blocking of greening were also impaired in the fin5-1 mutant, whereas photoperiodic floral induction was not, if at all, significantly affected. Moreover, light-regulated expression of the CHS, PORA and PsbS genes was attenuated in fin5-1 mutant plants, while the light-induced expression of CAB was normal. The mutation exhibited semi-dominance regarding control of hypocotyl growth in FR light. We suggest that FIN5 defines a novel branch in the network of phyA signaling in Arabidopsis.

HFR1, a phytochrome A-signalling component, acts in a separate pathway from HY5, downstream of COP1 in Arabidopsis thaliana

HFR1, a basic helix-loop-helix protein, is known to be required for a subset of phytochrome A (phyA)-dependent photoresponses. To investigate the role of HFR1 in light signalling, we have examined the genetic interaction between HFR1 and HY5, a positive regulator of light signalling, and COP1, a repressor of photomorphogenesis. Double mutant analysis suggests that HFR1 mediates phyA-dependent inhibition of hypocotyl elongation independently of HY5. HFR1 was shown to be necessary for a subset of cop1-triggered photomorphogenic phenotypes in the dark, including inhibition of hypocotyl elongation, gravitropic hypocotyl growth, and expression of the light-inducible genes CAB and RBCS. Phenotypic analysis of the triple mutant cop1hy5hfr1 indicated that both HFR1 and HY5 are required for cop1-mediated photomorphogenic seedling development in darkness, consistent with their additive roles in phyA-dependent signalling. Taken together, these results suggest that HFR1 might act downstream of COP1, in a separate pathway from HY5, to mediate photomorphogenesis in Arabidopsis.

Light and brassinosteroid signals are integrated via a dark-induced small G protein in etiolated seedling growth

Plant growth and development are regulated through coordinated interactions between light and phytohormones. Here, we demonstrate that a dark-induced small G protein, pea Pra2, regulates a variant cytochrome P450 that catalyzes C-2 hydroxylation in brassinosteroid biosynthesis. The cytochrome P450 is dark-induced and predominantly expressed in the rapidly elongating zone of etiolated pea epicotyls, where Pra2 is also most abundant. Transgenic plants with reduced Pra2 exhibit a dark-specific dwarfism, which is completely rescued by exogenous brassinolide. Overexpression of the cytochrome P450 results in enhanced hypocotyl growth even in the light, which phenocopies the etiolated hypocotyls. We therefore propose that Pra2 and its orthologs are molecular mediators for the cross-talk between light and brassinosteroids in the etiolation process in plants.

A DNA-binding activity for the promoter of the gene encoding C(4) phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase is modulated by phosphorylation during greening of the Sorghum leaf

Electrophoresis mobility shift assay (EMSA) identified nuclear proteins with binding activity to a 430 bp promoter fragment of the Sorghum C(4) phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase gene (SvC4). The DNA binding activities (two main retarded bands; PC1 and PC2) were high in nuclear extracts from etiolated leaves, decreased during greening and became very low or null in nuclear extracts from green leaves. This process was found to be mediated by phytochrome and was apparently irreversible since the DNA-binding activities were not restored in green plants kept in continuous darkness. The AT-rich region of the promoter fragment was identified to be the interaction domain of PC2. The detection of PC2 with EMSA was markedly reduced by preincubation of nuclear protein extracts with Mg-ATP or Mg-GTP and restored in the presence of a general protein serine/threonine-kinase inhibitor, K252a. The results suggested that the PC2 binding activity was modulated by phosphorylation during the greening process of the Sorghum leaf.

Cloning and characterisation of PGA1 and PGA2: two G protein alpha-subunits from pea that promote growth in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae

We report here on the cloning and characterization of two G protein alpha-subunits from pea: PGA1 and PGA2. Based on DNA gel blot analysis, PGA1 and PGA2 are the only Galpha homologous sequences in pea. RT-PCR analysis reveals that PGA1 and PGA2 transcripts are present in a variety of adult pea tissues. However, PGA2 mRNA is consistently detected at a lower level than PGA1 and demonstrates some degree of tissue specificity relative to PGA1. In the apical bud of pea seedlings, PGA1 and PGA2 transcripts decrease in response to 24 h of white light following growth for 6 days in darkness. The G protein mediated, yeast mating pathway was used to analyse the function of PGA1 and PGA2 in vivo. PGA1 downregulates the mating pathway, but through a mechanism that is independent of Gbetagamma sequestration. Unexpectedly, both PGA1 and PGA2 promote growth through a mating pathway independent mechanism.

Light regulation of nitrate reductase gene expression in maize involves a G-protein

This paper reports three lines of evidence to demonstrate the presence of heterotrimeric G-proteins in maize and their involvement in the regulation of nitrate reductase gene expression by light: (1) Southern blot analysis of maize genomic DNA using a human Ha-ras cDNA probe revealed specific bands indicating the presence of G-protein (alpha subunit) gene(s) in maize. Northern blot analysis of maize total RNA using the same probe revealed that the putative Galpha gene(s) is transcriptionally active. (2) Western blots containing purified plasma membrane proteins from maize leaves showed specific binding of gamma [35S]-labeled GTP in a red light-dependent manner, indicating the involvement of G-proteins in mediating the light signal. The size of the putative Galpha gene product (approximately 45 kDa) indicates that it may be a heterotrimeric G-protein. (3) Cholera toxin mimicked the effect of red light to enhance the transcript levels of nitrate reductase (NR), indicating that G-proteins may mediate light regulation of NR gene expression.

Biochemical characteristics of a rice (Oryza sativa L., IR36) G-protein alpha-subunit expressed in Escherichia coli

A cDNA encoding the alpha-subunit of the heterotrimeric G-protein in rice (RGA1) was overexpressed in Escherichia coli and then isolated by Ni2+-nitrilotriacetic acid affinity chromatography. The molecular mass of RGA1 bearing a His tag was approx. 49 kDa. Immunoblot analysis using anti-RGA1 revealed that the RGA1 protein is most abundant in seedling leaves and least abundant in mature roots. It exists at particularly high levels in the immature embryo after pellicle extrusion. In addition, the RGA1 antiserum exhibited a difference in binding affinity for Galpha proteins from monocots (maize and rice) and dicots (Arabidopsis, pea, soya bean and tomato); whereas it cross-reacted with Galpha proteins of monocots, it did not with those of dicot plants. When bound to guanosine 5'-(gamma-thio)triphosphate (GTP[S]), the RGA1 protein was partially protected from tryptic proteolysis. In the presence of GTP[S], trypsin cleaved the RGA1 protein into four fragments 24, 14, 11 and 5 kDa in size. When RGA1 was bound to GDP, only the 5 kDa polypeptide was seen on SDS/PAGE after trypsin digestion. Photoaffinity labelling with [alpha-32P]GTP and a GTP[S]-binding assay revealed that RGA1 incorporated 32P and showed specific binding to a guanine nucleotide. Guanidine binding of RGA1 was affected by the concentration of MgCl2 (maximum at 2 mM). The rate of guanine nucleotide binding of RGA1 (kon,GTP[S]=0.0141+/-0.0014 min-1) and, at steady state, the kcat value for GTP hydrolysis (0.0075+/-0.0001 min-1) were very low even at 2 mM MgCl2. The binding affinity for the nucleotides examined was in the order GTP-S- >/= GTP > GDP > CTP > ATP >/= dTTP.

Isolation and analysis of the soybean SGA2 gene (cDNA), encoding a new member of the plant G-protein family of signal transducers

We have isolated a cDNA clone from Glycine max, named SGA2, coding for a G alpha-subunit protein. The encoded polypeptide, SG alpha2, shows a molecular mass of 45 kDa and contains most of the conserved regions involved in guanine nucleotide binding and hydrolysis. Comparison at the nucleotide and amino acid sequence levels with the other plant G alpha's shows a high degree of conservation (>85% similarity). Phylogenetic analysis of these plant genes with the other G alpha's from different species clearly indicate that those proteins represent a new member of the heterotrimeric G-protein family, named Gp. Tissue localization of SGA2 transcripts in root, stem and leaf organs shows that this gene is widely expressed throughout the plant although it is most abundant in the vascular tissues of all these organs. Furthermore, the transcript is more abundant in young tissues and organ primordia than mature tissues. The high degree of sequence conservation among the plant G alpha's and the differences to other species of other kingdoms, suggest that plant G proteins may function in specialized signalling processes.

A possible tyrosine phosphorylation of phytochrome

Red/far-red light signal transduction by the phytochrome family of photoreceptors regulates plant growth and development. We investigated the possibility that tyrosine kinases and/or phosphatases are involved in phytochrome-mediated signal transduction using crude extracts of oat seedlings that are grown in the dark. We found that a 124 kDa protein was tyrosine-phosphorylated as determined by Western blotting with a phosphotyrosine-specific monoclonal antibody. The 124 kDa protein was recognized by the anti-phosphotyrosine antibody in anti-phytochrome A immunoprecipitates. The level of anti-phosphotyrosine antibody binding to the 124 kDa protein(s) in phytochrome immunoprecipitates that had been treated with red light prior to immunoprecipitation decreased relative to dark controls. These results suggest that either phytochrome from dark-grown seedlings is tyrosine phosphorylated or that it co-immunoprecipitates with a phosphotyrosine-containing protein of the same molecular weight. The implications of these results in the regulation of (a) the putative Ser/Thr kinase activity of the photoreceptor and (b) the binding of signaling molecules, such as phospholipase C to phytochrome, are discussed.

Evidence for some common signal transduction events for opposite regulation of nitrate reductase and phytochrome-I gene expression by light

We have explored the possible involvement of the phosphoinositide (PI) cycle and protein kinase C (PKC) in the phytochrome (Pfr)-mediated light signal transduction pathway using nitrate reductase (NR) and phytochrome-I (PhyI) genes as model systems. We have shown earlier that phorbol myristate acetate (PMA) completely replaces the red light effect in stimulating nitrate reductase activity and transcript levels in maize. In this paper, we present detailed evidence to show that PMA mimics the red light effect and follows similar kinetics to enhance NR steady-state transcript accumulation in a nitrate-dependent manner. We also show that PMA inhibits phyI steady-state transcript accumulation in a manner similar to red light, indicating that a PKC-type enzyme(s) may be involved in mediating the light effect in both cases. Serotonin or 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT), a stimulator of PI turnover, was also found to mimic the red light effect in enhancing NR transcript levels and inhibiting phyI transcript accumulation, indicating the role of the PI cycle in generating second messengers for regulating the two genes. These results indicate that phytochrome-mediated light regulation of NR and phyI gene expression may involve certain common steps in the signal transduction pathway such as the PI cycle and protein phosphorylation by a PKC-type enzyme.

Light inactivation of Arabidopsis photomorphogenic repressor COP1 involves a cell-specific regulation of its nucleocytoplasmic partitioning

Arabidopsis COP1 acts as a repressor of photomorphogenesis in darkness, and light stimuli abrogate this suppressive action. COP1, when fused to beta-glucuronidase (GUS), is enriched in the nucleus in darkness, but not in the light, in hypocotyl cells of Arabidopsis seedlings and epidermal cells of onion bulbs. In Arabidopsis hypocotyl cells, the nuclear GUS-COP1 level changes in response to dark-light transitions and quantitatively correlates with the extent of repression of photomorphogenic development. In root cells, GUS-COP1 is constitutively nuclear, consistent with an established role of COP1 in suppressing root chloroplast development in both light and darkness. We conclude that COP1 acts inside the nucleus to suppress photomorphogenesis and that light inactivation of COP1 involves a cell type-specific control of its nucleocytoplasmic partitioning.

GTP-binding proteins in plants: new members of an old family

Regulatory guanine nucleotide-binding proteins (G proteins) have been studied extensively in animal and microbial organisms, and they are divided into the heterotrimeric and the small (monomeric) classes. Heterotrimeric G proteins are known to mediate signal responses in a variety of pathways in animals and simple eukaryotes, while small G proteins perform diverse functions including signal transduction, secretion, and regulation of cytoskeleton. In recent years, biochemical analyses have produced a large amount of information on the presence and possible functions of G proteins in plants. Further, molecular cloning has clearly demonstrated that plants have both heterotrimeric and small G proteins. Although the functions of the plant heterotrimeric G proteins are yet to be determined, expression analysis of an Arabidopsis G alpha protein suggests that it may be involved in the regulation of cell division and differentiation. In contrast to the very few genes cloned thus far that encode heterotrimeric G proteins in plants, a large number of small G proteins have been identified by molecular cloning from various plants. In addition, several plant small G proteins have been shown to be functional homologues of their counterparts in animals and yeasts. Future studies using a number of approaches are likely to yield insights into the role plant G proteins play.

A plant nucleoside diphosphate kinase homologous to the human Nm23 gene product: purification and characterization

Nucleoside diphosphate kinases (NDPKs) catalyze the transfer of high-energy phosphates from nucleoside triphosphates to nucleoside diphosphates and may be involved in the regulation of growth, development, and signal transduction processes. We report here the purification and characterization of NDPK from detergent-solubilized extracts of dark-grown oat (Avena) tissue. The purification was achieved primarily through adsorption to GTP-agarose, followed by elution with ATP. SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and gel filtration chromatography indicated that the purified protein is composed of six 18 kDa subunits. Substrate specificity experiments indicated that the purified kinase is capable of using all tested nucleosides as substrates. N-terminal sequencing of the Avena protein revealed that 87% of the 23 amino acids sequenced were identical to the human Nm23 protein, a nucleoside diphosphate kinase identified as a possible tumor metastasis suppressor and transcriptional activator of the myc oncogene.

Homology at the amino acid level between plant phytochromes and a regulator of asexual sporulation in Emericella (= Aspergillus) nidulans

Protein sequence comparison between the N-terminal regions of the BRLA (bristle A) protein of the ascomycete fungus Aspergillus nidulans and a number of plant phytochromes has demonstrated a moderate level of sequence similarity. The region of similarity corresponds to the phytochrome domains believed to be responsible for photoreception and which undergo light-induced conformational changes, although a putative chromophore-binding site is not evident. Over 22% of residues are conserved and 24% conservatively substituted between residues 1 and 272 of BRLA and the N-terminal domains of Type 1 phytochromes from dicotyledonous species. A lower level of similarity, but over the same region, is observed in comparison with a wider range of phytochromes. Given the known role of BRLA as a transcriptional activator involved in conidiation, and the red/far-red reversible photoregulation of this developmental process, the similarity with phytochromes may be significant.

Detection of GTP-binding proteins in barley aleurone protoplasts

We report the existence of several families of GTP-binding proteins in barley aleurone protoplasts. Partial purified plasma membrane proteins were separated by SDS-PAGE, transferred to a nitrocellulose filter and incubated with either antisera raised against a highly conserved animal G protein alpha subunit peptide/or Ras protein, or with [alpha-32P]GTP. Two sets of proteins of M(r) = 32-36 kDa and 22-24 kDa were strongly recognized by the antisera. Binding of [alpha-32P]GTP was detected on Western blots with proteins of M(r) = 22-24 kDa and 16 kDa. Binding was inhibited by 10(-7)-10(-6) M GTP gamma S, GTP or GDP; binding was not affected by 10(-6)-10(-5) M ATP gamma S or ADP. The kinetics, specificity and the effects of phytohormones in a [35S]GTP gamma S binding assay were also studied in isolated plasma membranes of barley aleurone protoplasts.

Calcium/calmodulin-dependent and -independent phytochrome signal transduction pathways

Phytochrome is a well-characterized plant photoreceptor, able to modulate many morphological, physiological, and biochemical events through as yet undefined mechanisms. By developing single-cell assays to visualize phytochrome responses, we have studied the effects of microinjecting putative signaling intermediates into phytochrome-deficient tomato cells. We demonstrate that phytochrome phototransduction initially involves the activation of one or more G proteins that are coupled to at least two different pathways; one pathway requires calcium and activated calmodulin and can stimulate expression of a photoregulated cab-GUS reporter gene together with the synthesis and assembly of some, but not all, of the photosynthetic complexes. The other pathway, controlling anthocyanin biosynthesis, does not require calcium. Furthermore, our results reveal that phytochrome signaling is cell autonomous and is not likely to require any light-activated steps downstream of the G protein.

G-protein from Medicago sativa: functional association to photoreceptors

G-protein subunits were characterized from Medicago sativa (alfalfa) seedlings. Crude membranes and GTP-Sepharose-purified fractions were electrophoresed on SDS/polyacrylamide gels and analysed by Western blotting with 9193 (anti-alpha common) and AS/7 (anti-alpha t, anti-alpha i1 and anti-alpha i2) polyclonal antibodies. These procedures led to the identification of a specific polypeptide band of about 43 kDa. Another polypeptide reacting with the SW/1 (anti-beta) antibody, of about 37 kDa, was also detected. The 43 kDa polypeptide bound specifically [alpha-32P]GTP by a photoaffinity reaction and was ADP-ribosylated by activated cholera toxin, but not by pertussis toxin. Irradiation of etiolated Medicago sativa protoplast preparations at 660 nm for 1 min produced a maximal increase in the guanosine 5'-[gamma-thio]triphosphate (GTP[35S])-binding rate. After this period of irradiation, the binding rate tended to decrease. The effect of a red-light (660 nm) pulse on the binding rate was reversed when it was immediately followed by a period of far-red (> 730 nm) illumination. These results may suggest that activation of GTP[S]-binding rate was a consequence of conversion of phytochrome Pr into the Ptr form.

Guanine nucleotide binding protein involvement in early steps of phytochrome-regulated gene expression

The transmission process of light signals from plant photoreceptors to target cellular events is largely unknown. In the present work, we show that treatment of dark-adapted soybean cells (SB-P) with cholera toxin or pertussis toxin uncouples phytochrome-dependent gene expression. Addition of as little as 10 ng of toxin per ml is sufficient to activate expression of genes encoding the major chlorophyll a/b-binding protein (cab) in the dark. Significant levels of cab transcript accumulation are detected within 0.5 h after addition of the toxins and expression of these genes is desensitized to further light treatments. Treatment of SB-P cells with the calmodulin antagonist N-(6-aminohexyl)-5-chloro-1-naphtha-lenesulfonamide hydrochloride (W-7) prevents induction of the photoregulated gene by phytochrome or bacterial toxins. These results indicate the involvement of guanine nucleotide binding protein(s) in phytochrome-mediated cab gene activation. A likely site of action for this step is between the photoreceptor and a downstream W-7-sensitive effector.

Detection of small GTP-binding proteins in the outer envelope membrane of pea chloroplasts

We found small GTP-binding proteins in the outer envelope membrane of pea chloroplasts. The proteins in this membrane were separated by SDS-PAGE, transferred to a nitrocellulose filter, and incubated with [alpha-32P]GTP. Three GTP-binding proteins with the molecular weight of 24,000 were found. Binding was prevented by 10(-8)-10(-7) M GTP or by 10(-7) M guanosine 5'-[gamma-thio]triphosphate or GDP; binding was unaffected by 10(-8)-10(-6) M ATP. Thermolysin treatment of intact chloroplasts resulted in the loss of GTP-binding activity, suggesting that these proteins were in the cytosolic side of the outer envelope membrane.