Functional expression of N-terminal truncated alpha-subunits of Na,K-ATPase in Xenopus laevis oocytes

Involvement of the alpha-subunit N-terminus in the mechanism of the Na+,K+-ATPase

Previous studies have shown that cytoplasmic K+ release and the associated E2 → E1 conformational change of the Na+,K+-ATPase is a major rate-determining step of the enzyme's ion pumping cycle and hence a prime site of acute regulatory intervention. From the ionic strength dependence of the enzyme's distribution between the E2 and E1 states, it has also been found that E2 is stabilized by an electrostatic attraction. Any disruption of this electrostatic attraction would, thus, have profound effects on the rate of ion pumping. The aim of this paper is to identify the location of this interaction. Using enhanced-sampling molecular dynamics simulations with a predicted N-terminal structure added to the X-ray crystal structure of the Na+,K+-ATPase, a previously postulated salt bridge between Lys32 and Glu233 (rat sequence numbering) of the enzyme's α-subunit can be excluded. The residues never approach closely enough to form a salt bridge. In contrast, strong interactions with anionic lipid head groups were seen. To investigate the possibility of a protein-lipid interaction experimentally, the surface charge density of Na+,K+-ATPase-containing membrane fragments was estimated from zeta potential measurements to be 0.019 (± 0.001) C m-2. This is in good agreement with the charge density previously determined to be responsible for stabilization of the E2 state of 0.023 (± 0.009) C m-2 and the membrane charge density estimated here from published electron-microscopic images of 0.018C m-2. The results are, therefore, consistent with an interaction of the Na+,K+-ATPase α-subunit N-terminus with negatively-charged lipid head groups of the neighbouring cytoplasmic membrane surface as the origin of the electrostatic interaction stabilising the E2 state.

Low Doses of Ouabain Protect from Serum Deprivation–Triggered Apoptosis and Stimulate Kidney Cell Proliferation via Activation of NF-κB

It now generally is agreed that Na,K-ATPase, in addition to its role in the maintenance of Na+ and K+ gradients across the cell membrane, plays a role in communicating information from the extracellular environment to intracellular signaling pathways. It was reported recently that interaction between ouabain-bound Na,K-ATPase and the 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor (IP3R) triggers slow calcium oscillations and activation of NF-kappaB. Here it is demonstrated that this signaling pathway can serve to prevent cell death and promote cell growth. Rat renal proximal tubular cells in primary culture first were grown in the presence of 10% serum and then exposed to 0.2% serum for 24 h to induce apoptosis. Serum starvation increased the apoptotic index from 1.21 +/- 0.26 to 14.01 +/- 1.17%. Ouabain in concentrations that did not inhibit Na,K-ATPase activity (1 to 10 nM) completely abolished the apoptotic effect of serum starvation. Ouabain protection from apoptosis was not observed when release of calcium from intracellular stores via the IP3R was prevented. It was shown that the NH2 terminal tail of the Na,K-ATPase alpha subunit plays a key role in ouabain-triggered calcium oscillations. It was found that ouabain did not protect from apoptosis in serum-deprived cells that expressed a mutant Na,K-ATPase alpha subunit with deletion of the NH2 terminal tail. Ouabain exposure (10 nM for 24 h) significantly increased translocation of NF-kappaB from cytoplasm to nucleus. Helenalin, an inhibitor of NF-kappaB, abolished the antiapoptotic effect of ouabain. Ouabain (0.1 to 10 nM) also was found to stimulate proliferation and increase the viability of kidney cells. These effects were abolished when release of calcium via the IP3R was prevented.

Na,K-ATPase Subunit Heterogeneity as a Mechanism for Tissue-Specific Ion Regulation

The Na,K-ATPase comprises a family of isozymes that catalyze the active transport of cytoplasmic Na+ for extracellular K+ at the plasma membrane of cells. Isozyme diversity for the Na,K-ATPase results from the association of different molecular forms of the alpha (alpha1, alpha2, alpha3, and alpha4) and beta (beta1, beta2, and beta3) subunits that constitute the enzyme. The various isozymes are characterized by unique enzymatic properties and a highly regulated pattern of expression that depends on cell type, developmental stage, and hormonal stimulation. The molecular complexity of the Na,K-ATPase goes beyond its alpha and beta isoforms and, in certain tissues, other accessory proteins associate with the enzyme. These small membrane-bound polypeptides, known as the FXYD proteins, modulate the kinetic characteristics of the Na,K-ATPase. The experimental evidence available suggests that the molecular and functional heterogeneity of the Na,K-ATPase is a physiologically relevant event that serves the specialized functions of cells. This article focuses on the functional properties, regulation, and the biological relevance of the Na,K-ATPase isozymes as a mechanism for the tissue-specific control of Na+ and K+ homeostasis.

New insights into the role of the N terminus in conformational transitions of the Na,K-ATPase

The deletion of 32 residues from the N terminus of the alpha1 catalytic subunit of the rat Na,K-ATPase (mutant alpha1M32) shifts the E(1)/E(2) conformational equilibrium toward E(1), and the combination of this deletion with mutation E233K in the M2-M3 loop acts synergistically to shift the conformation further toward E(1) (Boxenbaum, N., Daly, S. E., Javaid, Z. Z., Lane, L. K., and Blostein, R. (1998) J. Biol. Chem. 273, 23086-23092). To delimit the region of the cytoplasmic N terminus involved in these interactions, the consequences of a series of N-terminal deletions of alpha1 beyond Delta32 were evaluated. Criteria to assess shifts in conformational equilibrium were based on effects of perturbation of the entire catalytic cycle ((i) sensitivity to vanadate inhibition, (ii) K(+) sensitivity of Na-ATPase measured at micromolar ATP, (iii) changes in K'(ATP), and (iv) catalytic turnover), as well as estimates of the rates of the conformational transitions of phospho- and dephosphoenzyme (E(1)P --> E(2)P and E(2)(K(+)) --> E(1) + K(+)). The results show that, compared with alpha1M32, the deletion of up to 40 residues (alpha1M40) further shifts the poise toward E(1). Remarkably, further deletions (mutants alpha1M46, alpha1M49, and alpha1M56) reverse the effect, such that these mutants increasingly resemble the wild type alpha1. These results suggest novel intramolecular interactions involving domains within the N terminus that impact the manner in which the N terminus/M2-M3 loop regulatory domain interacts with the M4-M5 catalytic loop to effect E(1) <--> E(2) transitions.

Physical mapping and characterization of the human Na,K-ATPase isoform, ATP1A4

Four isoforms of the catalytic alpha subunit of the Na,K-ATPase have been previously identified. We characterized and mapped a genomic copy of the human ATP1A4 isoform between D1S2707 and WI-9524, telomeric to a nearby isoform ATP1A2, and within a candidate region at 1q23 for familial hemiplegic migraine (FHM). Human ATP1A4 gene shares 84% identity with the mouse Atp1a4 gene, and both consist of 22 exons and 21 introns. The predicted polypeptide is 1029 amino acids and shares 82 and 79.8% identity, respectively, with human ATP1A2 and ATP1A1. ATP1A4 is larger than other isoforms and most divergent at the N-terminus. ATP1A4 and ATP1A2 are paralogous genes with the same number and organization of putative H-transmembrane domains, conserved exon-intron boundaries, and are found approximately 8.5 kb apart. Expression analysis of the ATP1A4 gene revealed a new major approximately 7.5 kb transcript in human skeletal muscle, with expression also shown in mouse muscle. Predictive analysis of promoter regions identified muscle specific regulatory elements for ATP1A4 and Atp1a4. Mutation analysis among eight affected individuals from a single large, highly penetrant FHM family was negative in ATP1A4 and ATP1A2 although multiple polymorphisms were identified.

Intersubunit interactions in human X,K-ATPases: role of membrane domains M9 and M10 in the assembly process and association efficiency of human, nongastric H,K-ATPase alpha subunits (ATP1al1) with known beta subunits

Na,K- and H,K-ATPase (X,K-ATPase) alpha subunits need association with a beta subunit for their maturation, but the authentic beta subunit of nongastric H,K-ATPase alpha subunits has not been identified. To better define alpha-beta interactions in these ATPases, we coexpressed human, nongastric H,K-ATPase alpha (AL1) and Na,K-ATPase alpha1 (alpha1NK) as well as AL1-alpha1 and alpha1-AL1 chimeras, which contain exchanged M9 and M10 membrane domains, together with each of the known beta subunits in Xenopus oocytes and followed their resistance to cellular and proteolytic degradation and their ER exit. We show that all beta subunits (gastric betaHK, beta1NK, beta2NK, beta3NK, or Bufo bladder beta) can associate efficiently with alpha1NK, but only gastric betaHK, beta2NK, and Bufo bladder beta can form stably expressed AL1-beta complexes that can leave the ER. The trypsin resistance and the forces of subunit interaction, probed by detergent resistance, are lower for AL1-beta complexes than for alpha1NK-beta complexes. Furthermore, chimeric alpha1-AL1 can be stabilized by beta subunits, but alpha1-AL1-gastric betaHK complexes are retained in the ER. On the other hand, chimeric AL1-alpha1 cannot be stabilized by any beta subunit. In conclusion, these results indicate that (1) none of the known beta subunits is the real partner subunit of AL1 but an as yet unidentified, authentic beta should have structural features resembling gastric betaHK, beta2NK, or Bufo bladder beta and (2) beta-mediated maturation of alpha subunits is a multistep process which depends on the membrane insertion properties of alpha subunits as well as on several discrete events of intersubunit interactions.

Significance of lysine/glycine cluster structure in gastric H+,K+-ATPase

Gastric H+,K+-ATPase consists of alpha- and beta-subunits. The catalytic alpha-subunit contains a very unique structure consisting of lysine and glycine clusters, KKK(or KKKK)AG(G/R)GGGK-(K/R)K, in the amino-terminal cytoplasmic region. This structure is well conserved in all gastric H+,K+-ATPases from different animal species, and was postulated to be the site controlling the access of cations (or proton) to its binding site. In this report, we studied the role of this unique structure by expressing several H+,K+-ATPase mutants of the alpha-subunit together with the wild-type beta-subunit in HEK-293 cells. Even after replacing all the positively-charged amino acid residues (six lysines and one arginine) in the cluster with alanine or removing all the glycine residues in the cluster, the mutants preserved the H+,K+-ATPase activity, and showed similar affinity for ATP and K+ as well as similar pH profiles as those of wild-type H+,K+-ATPase, indicating that the cluster is not indispensable for H+,K+-ATPase activity and not directly involved in determination of the affinity for cation (proton).

An NH2-terminal deleted plasma membrane H+-ATPase is a dominant negative mutant and is sequestered in endoplasmic reticulum derived structures

The NH2-terminus of the plasma membrane H+-ATPase is one of the least conserved segments of this protein among fungi. We constructed and expressed a mutant H+-ATPase from Saccharomyces cerevisiae deleted at an internal peptide within the cytoplasmic NH2-terminus (D44-F116). When the enzyme was subjected to limited trypsinolysis it was digested more rapidly than wild type H+-ATPase. Membrane fractionation experiments and immunofluorescence microscopy, using antibodies against H+-ATPase showed that the mutant ATPase is retained in the endoplasmic reticulum. The pattern observed in the immunofluorescence microscopy resembled structures similar to Russell bodies (modifications of the endoplasmic reticulum membranes) recently described in yeast. When the wild type H+-ATPase was co-expressed with the mutant, wild type H+-ATPase was also retained in the endoplasmic reticulum. Co-expression of both ATPases in a wild type yeast strain was lethal, demonstrating that this is a dominant negative mutant.

Transport and pharmacological properties of nine different human Na, K-ATPase isozymes

Na,K-ATPase plays a crucial role in cellular ion homeostasis and is the pharmacological receptor for digitalis in man. Nine different human Na,K-ATPase isozymes, composed of 3 alpha and beta isoforms, were expressed in Xenopus oocytes and were analyzed for their transport and pharmacological properties. According to ouabain binding and K(+)-activated pump current measurements, all human isozymes are functional but differ in their turnover rates depending on the alpha isoform. On the other hand, variations in external K(+) activation are determined by a cooperative interaction mechanism between alpha and beta isoforms with alpha2-beta2 complexes having the lowest apparent K(+) affinity. alpha Isoforms influence the apparent internal Na(+) affinity in the order alpha1 > alpha2 > alpha3 and the voltage dependence in the order alpha2 > alpha1 > alpha3. All human Na,K-ATPase isozymes have a similar, high affinity for ouabain. However, alpha2-beta isozymes exhibit more rapid ouabain association as well as dissociation rate constants than alpha1-beta and alpha3-beta isozymes. Finally, isoform-specific differences exist in the K(+)/ouabain antagonism which may protect alpha1 but not alpha2 or alpha3 from digitalis inhibition at physiological K(+) levels. In conclusion, our study reveals several new functional characteristics of human Na,K-ATPase isozymes which help to better understand their role in ion homeostasis in different tissues and in digitalis action and toxicity.

Mutations of Ser-23 of the alpha1 subunit of the rat Na+/K+-ATPase to negatively charged amino acid residues mimic the functional effect of PKC-mediated phosphorylation

The Na+/K+-ATPase is a target protein for protein kinase C (PKC). The PKC-mediated phosphorylation of the rat alpha1 subunit at Ser-23 results in the inhibition of its transport function. To understand the molecular basis of the inhibition by PKC, the Ser-23 in the rat alpha1 subunit has been replaced by negatively (Asp, Glu) or positively (Lys) charged, or uncharged (Gln, Ala) residues, and the mutants were expressed in Xenopus oocytes. Ouabain-specific 86Rb uptake and pump-generated current as well as sensitivity to ouabain and to external K+ have been investigated. When Ser-23 was replaced by the negatively charged residues, transport function was inhibited, and simultaneously synthesis of the alpha subunits was enhanced. In addition, if Ser-23 was substituted by Glu, the K(I) value for inhibition of transport by ouabain was drastically increased from 46.5 microM to 1.05 mM. The data suggest that insertion of a negative charge within the N-terminus of alpha subunit of the Na+/K+-ATPase due to phosphorylation of Ser-23 plays an important role in the PKC-mediated inhibition of transport function.

Isoform-specific effects of charged residues at borders of the M1-M2 loop of the Na,K-ATPase alpha subunit

The Na,K-ATPase is specifically inhibited by the cardiac glycoside, ouabain. Via a largely undefined mechanism, the ouabain affinity of the Na,K-ATPase can be manipulated by mutating the residues at the borders of the first extracellular (M1-M2) loop of the alpha subunit [Price, E. M., Rice, D. A., and Lingrel, J. B. (1990) J. Biol. Chem. 265, 6638-6641]. To address this issue, we compared the effects of two combinations of charged residues at the M1-M2 loop border, R113, D124 and D113,R124 (numbered according to the rat alpha1 subunit), on the ouabain sensitivity of the alpha1 and alpha2 isoforms. We report that ouabain sensitivity is dependent not only upon the identity of the residues at the M1-M2 loop border but also upon the context into which they are introduced. Furthermore, at low concentrations of ATP, the identity of the residues at the M1-M2 loop border affects the regulation of ATP hydrolysis by potassium in an isoform-specific manner. Analysis of chimeric alpha subunits reveals that the effects of potassium are determined primarily by the interaction of the N-terminus and M1-M2 loop with the C-terminal third of the alpha subunit. M1-M2 loop border residues may, therefore, influence ouabain sensitivity indirectly by altering the stability or structure of the intermediate of the Na,K-ATPase catalytic cycle which is competent to bind ouabain.

Isozymes of the Na-K-ATPase: heterogeneity in structure, diversity in function

The Na-K-ATPase is characterized by a complex molecular heterogeneity that results from the expression and differential association of multiple isoforms of both its alpha- and beta-subunits. At present, as many as four different alpha-polypeptides (alpha1, alpha2, alpha3, and alpha4) and three distinct beta-isoforms (beta1, beta2, and beta3) have been identified in mammalian cells. The stringent constraints on the structure of the Na pump isozymes during evolution and their tissue-specific and developmental pattern of expression suggests that the different Na-K-ATPases have evolved distinct properties to respond to cellular requirements. This review focuses on the functional properties, regulation, and possible physiological relevance of the Na pump isozymes. The coexistence of multiple alpha- and beta-isoforms in most cells has hindered the understanding of the roles of the individual polypeptides. The use of heterologous expression systems has helped circumvent this problem. The kinetic characteristics of different Na-K-ATPase isozymes to the activating cations (Na+ and K+), the substrate ATP, and the inhibitors Ca2+ and ouabain demonstrate that each isoform has distinct properties. In addition, intracellular messengers differentially regulate the activity of the individual Na-K-ATPase isozymes. Thus the regulation of specific Na pump isozymes gives cells the ability to precisely coordinate Na-K-ATPase activity to their physiological requirements.

Mutagenesis disrupts posttranslational processing of the Na,K-ATPase catalytic subunit

The first 5 amino acids of the catalytic alpha 1 isoform from Na,K-ATPase are cleaved enzymatically during or after translation. To evaluate the structural requirements for that cleavage, we constructed amino-terminal mutants of alpha 1 in which an epitope tag from the c-myc oncogene product was added. Immunoblots of isolated membranes from transfected monkey kidney cells revealed binding of an antibody specific for the first 9 residues of the alpha 1 nascent protein. Because this antibody does not recognize the shorter sequence corresponding to the processed polypeptide, these results indicate that the epitope tag prevented normal processing, a conclusion confirmed by the observed binding of an anti-myc antibody. In contrast, membranes from cells expressing deletion mutants that lack residues 10-24 and 10-31 of the nascent chain failed to bind the amino-terminal-directed antibody, suggesting that the mutants were cleaved normally and that amino acids downstream of the first 9 are not required for proteolysis. Amino-terminal mutants produced in other laboratories have shown an anomalous stimulation of ATPase activity by K+ when measured in low ATP concentrations. The myc-tagged and downstream deletion mutants were sensitive to K+ in the range from 0.05 to 5 mM, similar to wild-type enzyme, despite the differences in posttranslational processing. A mutant missing the first 40 residues of the nascent chain, however, displayed an activation by K+. These results suggest that amino-terminal processing of the alpha 1 isoform was prevented by mutation, yet that processing had little influence on the kinetic parameter most likely to be influenced by such changes.

alpha 1 but not alpha 2 or alpha 3 isoforms of Na,K-ATPase are efficiently phosphorylated in a novel protein kinase C motif

Protein kinase C (PKC) phosphorylates the catalytic alpha 1 subunit of Na,K-ATPase in purified enzyme preparations and in intact cells. Little is known, however, whether all three known alpha isoforms are substrates for PKC and whether direct phosphorylation is implicated in the modulation of the transport activity of the different Na,K-ATPase isozymes. In this study, we investigated the structural requirements for PKC phosphorylation of alpha 1, alpha 2, and alpha 3 isoforms of different species after expression in Xenopus oocytes. By using a combination of site-directed mutagenesis and computer-assisted protein modeling, we characterized a novel Ser-X-His motif which in concert with more distantly located basic residues acts as an efficient substrate for PKC-mediated phosphorylation in the N-terminus of most Na,K-ATPase alpha 1 isoforms. As indicated by controlled proteolysis, alpha 2 isoforms are also phosphorylated in the N-terminus but to a much lower extent than alpha 1 isoforms containing the Ser-X-His motif. Phosphorylation and phosphoamino acid analysis of fusion proteins containing the wild-type or mutant N-terminus of alpha 2 reveal that Thr-Thr-Ser-X-Asn or Thr-Thr-Ala-X-Asn motifs represent weak targets for PKC phosphorylation. Finally, our data suggest that, with the exception of rat alpha 3, all alpha 3 isoforms from other species are not substrates for PKC. On the basis of the phosphorylation efficiency, we may speculate that only alpha 1 but not alpha 2 or alpha 3 isoforms of Na,K-ATPase are likely candidates for regulatory PKC phosphorylation.

Structure/function analysis of the amino-terminal region of the 1 and 2 subunits of Na,K-ATPase

The alpha2 isoform of the Na,K-ATPase exhibits kinetic behavior distinct from that of the alpha1 isoform. The distinctive behavior is apparent when the reaction is carried out under conditions (micromolar ATP concentration) in which the K+ deocclusion pathway of the reaction cycle is rate-limiting; the alpha1 activity is inhibited by K+, whereas alpha2 is stimulated. When 32 NH2-terminal amino acid residues are removed from alpha1, the kinetic behavior of the mutant enzyme (alpha1M32) is similar to that of alpha2 (Daly, S. E., Lane, L. K., and Blostein, R. (1994) J. Biol. Chem. 269, 23944-23948). In the current study, the region of the alpha1 NH2 terminus involved in modulating this kinetic behavior has been localized to the highly charged sequence comprising residues 24-32. Within this nonapeptide, differences between alpha1 and alpha2 are conservative and are confined to residues 25-27. The behavior of two chimeric enzymes: (i) alpha1 with the first 32 residues identical to the alpha2 sequence, alpha1 (1-32alpha2), and (ii) alpha2 with the first 32 residues identical to the alpha1 sequence, alpha2(1-32alpha1), indicates that the distinctive kinetic behavior of alpha1 and alpha2 is not due to the 24-32 NH2-terminal domain, per se, but rather to its interaction with other, isoform-specific region(s) of the alpha1 protein. We also demonstrate that the distinct K+ activation profiles of either alpha2 or alpha1M32, compared to alpha1 is due to a faster release of K+ from the K+-occluded enzyme, and to a higher affinity for ATP. This was determined in studies using two approaches: (i) kinetic analysis of the reaction modeled according to a branched pathway of K+ deocclusion through low and high affinity ATP pathways and, (ii) measurements of the (rapid) phosphorylation of the enzyme (E1 conformation) by [gamma-32P]ATP following the rate-limiting formation of the K+-free enzyme from the K+-occluded state (E2(K) --> E1 + K+). The observed kinetic differences between alpha2 and alpha1 suggest that these Na,K-ATPase isoforms differ in the steady-state distribution of E1 and E2 conformational states.

Amino-terminal processing of the catalytic subunit from Na(+)-K(+)-ATPase

The first five amino acids of the catalytic alpha 1-subunit predicted from its cDNA are not found in purified mammalian Na(+)-K(+)-ATPase, suggesting co- or posttranslational cleavage. To facilitate evaluation of amino-terminal structure and the cleavage process, we developed a site-directed antibody (anti-VGR) specific for the first nine residues of nascent alpha 1 from rat. In immunoblots of polypeptides generated by in vitro translation, anti-VGR detected a prominent band with a mobility appropriate for the alpha 1-subunit (100 kDa). Immunoblots of total protein from various rat organs, however, revealed no significant binding, implying that virtually all the alpha 1-subunit expressed in vivo was modified. We also assessed amino-terminal structure in various heterologous expression systems. Binding of anti-VGR was observed in Escherichia coli transformed with a vector containing an alpha 1/troponin fusion protein and in insect cells infected with baculovirus containing full-length alpha 1 or alpha 1T. This suggests that modification of the introduced alpha 1 in these expression systems was absent or different from that in mammals. In contrast, green monkey kidney cells (COS-1) transfected with alpha 1 did not reveal significant binding of the antibody, indicating that the introduced isoform was processed appropriately. These results demonstrate that the structure of the alpha 1-subunit's amino terminus differs among various expression systems. The results further imply that efficient co- or posttranslational processing of nascent alpha 1 is conserved among various organs within the rat, yet the required modification enzymes are not present in distant phyla.

Role in cation translocation of the N-terminus of the alpha-subunit of the Na(+)-K+ pump of Bufo

1. We have studied the effects on the physiological properties of the Na(+)-K+ pump of both 31- and 40-amino acid N-terminal truncated forms of the alpha-subunit of the Na(+)-K(+)-ATPase. 2. Na(+)-K+ pumps that were moderately ouabain resistant (K1 = 50 microM) were expressed in the Xenopus oocyte by injection of wild-type or truncated variants of the Bufo marinus Na(+)-K(+)-ATPase alpha-subunit cRNA with Bufo beta-subunit cRNA. The function of the Na(+)-K+ pump was studied by electrophysiological methods after Na+ loading and inhibition of the endogenous Xenopus Na(+)-K(+)-ATPase by exposure to a low concentration (0.2 microM) of ouabain. 3. The voltage-dependent potassium activation kinetics of the Na(+)-K+ pump current and the ouabain-sensitive proton-dependent inward current were studied using the two-electrode voltage-clamp technique. A novel technique involving permeabilization of part of the oocyte membrane with digitonin was developed to enable study of the pre-steady-state current following fast voltage perturbation. 4. By comparison with the wild type, the 40-amino acid N-terminal truncation induced a lower level of Na(+)-K+ pump current, a 2- to 3-fold reduction in the apparent external K+ affinity when measured in the presence of extracellular Na+, a relative increase in the proton-dependent inward current, and a reduction in the rate constant of the pre-steady-state current following a voltage step towards a positive membrane potential. The 31-amino acid truncation induced changes that were qualitatively similar but of smaller magnitude. 5. We have analysed these results using a kinetic model of the Na(+)-K+ pump cycle and have shown that all these effects can be explained by the change in a single rate constant in the cycle kinetics, namely a reduction in the rate of the main charge translocating part of the Na(+)-K+ pump cycle, i.e. the forward E1 to E2 conformational change, the deocclusion and release of Na+ to the external side. 6. The highly charged N-terminal segment seems to be directly involved in the mechanism that translocates Na+ ions across the membrane's electrical field.

Human ATP1AL1 gene encodes a ouabain-sensitive H-K-ATPase

The cDNA for ATP1AL1, the fifth member of the human Na-K-adenosinetriphosphatase (ATPase)/H-K-ATPase gene family, was recently cloned (A. V. Grishin, V. E. Sverdlov, M. B. Kostina, and N. N. Modyanov. FEBS Lett. 349: 144-150, 1994). The encoded protein (ATP1AL1) has all the primary structural features common to the catalytic alpha-subunit of ion-transporting P-type ATPases and is similar (63-64% identity) to the Na-K-ATPase alpha-subunit isoforms and the gastric H-K-ATPase alpha-subunit. In this study, ATP1AL1 was expressed in Xenopus laevis oocytes in combination with the beta-subunit of rabbit gastric H-K-ATPase. The functional properties of the stable alpha/beta-complex were studied by 86Rb+ uptake and demonstrated that ATP1AL1 is a novel human K(+)-dependent ATPase [apparent half-constant activation/(K1/2) for K+ approximately 375 microM)]. ATP1AL1-mediated inward K+ transport was inhibited by ouabain (inhibition constant approximately 13 microM) and was found to be inhibited by high concentrations of SCH-28080 (approximately 70% at 500 microM). ATP1AL1 expression resulted in the alkalinization of the oocytes' cytoplasm and ouabain-sensitive proton extrusion, as measured with pH-sensitive microelectrodes. These data argue that ATP1AL1 is the catalytic alpha-subunit of a human nongastric P-type ATPase capable of exchanging extracellular potassium for intracellular protons.

A single isoform of the Na+/K(+)-ATPase alpha-subunit in Diptera: evidence from characterization of the first extracellular domain

The first extracellular domain of the alpha-subunit of the Na+/K+-ATPase (sodium/potassium pump) is functionally important, affecting sensitivity of the enzyme to cardiac glycosides (e.g. ouabain) and being implicated in the transport of K+. This domain is also variable among mammalian isoforms of the alpha-subunit. Using PCR, we have isolated from seven insect species with contrasting physiologies a DNA fragment containing this region, in order to help determine whether tissue-specific expression might be associated with isoforms encoded by a gene family, as it is in mammals. A single sequence (with one ORF) characteristic of Na+/K+-ATPase was obtained from genomic DNA of each species. Only the fragment from Manduca sexta contained an intron, but at a location different to that found in mammals. For all Diptera so far characterized, the species phylogeny is the same as the alpha-subunit gene phylogeny (based on the sequences of the first extracellular domain and flanking transmembrane domains). The results strongly indicate a single, ouabain-sensitive isoform of the alpha-subunit of Na+/K+-ATPase is present in Diptera.

Structural basis for species-specific differences in the phosphorylation of Na,K-ATPase by protein kinase C

There is considerable evidence that protein kinases play a role in regulation of the activity of the Na,K-ATPase, but the characteristics of direct kinase phosphorylation of Na,K-ATPase subunits are still not well understood. There are 36 sites that could qualify as protein kinase C motifs in rat alpha 1. Here we have used protein fragmentation with trypsin to localize the site of phosphorylation of the rat Na,K-ATPase alpha 1 subunit to within the first 32 amino acids of the N terminus and then used direct sequencing of the phosphorylated protein to determine which of two candidate serine residues was modified. The result was that at most 25% of the 32P was found on Ser-11, a site that is well conserved in Na,K-ATPase alpha 1 subunits. The remaining 75% or more of the 32P was found on Ser-18, a site that is absent in many Na,K-ATPase alpha subunit sequences. This accounts for the observation that dog and pig alpha 1 subunits can be phosphorylated by protein kinase C only to much lower levels than can rat alpha 1. It is also likely to be relevant to other known species-specific effects of protein kinase C on Na,K-ATPase.

Primary structure and functional expression of the mouse and frog alpha-subunit of the gastric H(+)-K(+)-ATPase

The H(+)-K(+)-ATPase of the gastric parietal cells is responsible for the acidification of the stomach lumen. This heterodimeric protein belongs to the family of cation-translocating P-type ATPases, which includes the closely related Na(+)-ATPase. We have cloned the alpha-subunit cDNA of the Xenopus and murine gastric H(+)-K(+)-ATPase (alpha H-K). We have expressed Xenopus and murine alpha H-K along with the previously cloned gastric H(+)-K(+)-ATPase beta-subunit of rabbit (beta H-K) in Xenopus oocytes by cRNA injection. An antibody directed against the beta H-K coimmunoprecipitates under nondenaturing conditions the alpha H-K of both species, demonstrating assembly of the alpha/beta complex. Additionally, we demonstrate the presence of K(+)-transporting H(+)-K(+)-ATPase in the plasma membrane of oocytes by 86Rb- uptake. The H(+)-K(+)-ATPase-mediated K+ uptake was inhibited by the gastric H(+)-K(+)-ATPase inhibitor Sch-28080, but not by ouabain, and shows K(+)-dependent activation (K1/2 approximately 2 mM). Furthermore, H(+)-K(+)-ATPase-expressing oocytes show a Sch-28080 inhibitable proton extrusion. Our data indicate that the expressed H(+)-K(+)-ATPase behaves functionally in oocytes as in the gastric gland.

Cloning and characterization of the entire cDNA encoded by ATP1AL1--a member of the human Na,K/H,K-ATPase gene family

The cDNA for ATP1AL1--the fifth member of the human Na,K-/H,K-ATPase gene family--was cloned and sequenced. The deduced primary ATP1AL1 translation product is 1,039 amino acids in length and has Mr of 114,543. The encoded protein has all of the structural features common to known catalytic subunits of P-type membrane ion-transporting ATPases and is equally distant (63-64% of identity) from the Na,K-ATPase isoforms and the gastric H,K-ATPase. The ATP1AL1 encoded protein was proposed to represent a new separate group within the family of human potassium-dependent ion pumps.

Na(+)-, ouabain-, Ca(2+)-, and thapsigargin-sensitive ATPase activity expressed in chimeras between the calcium and the sodium pump alpha subunits

Using the chicken sarcoplasmic/endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ (SERCA)-ATPase as a parental molecule and replacing various portions with the corresponding portions of the chicken Na+,K(+)-ATPase alpha 1 subunit, Ca2+/thapsigargin- and Na+/ouabain-sensitive domains critical for these P-type ATPase activities were identified. In the chimera, [n/c]CC, the amino-terminal amino acids Met-1 to Asp-162 of the SERCA (isoform 1) (SERCA1) ATPase were replaced with the corresponding portion (Met-1-Asp-200) of the Na+,K(+)-ATPase alpha 1 subunit. In the chimera CC[c/n], the carboxyl-terminal amino acids (Ser-830 to COOH) of the SERCA1 ATPase were replaced with the corresponding segment (Leu-861 to COOH) of the Na+,K(+)-ATPase alpha 1 subunit, and in the chimera CNC, the middle part (Gly-354-Lys-712) of the SERCA1 ATPase was exchanged with the Na+,K(+)-ATPase alpha 1 subunit (Gly-378-Lys-724). None of the chimeric molecules exhibited any detectable ouabain-sensitive Na+,K(+)-ATPase activity, but they did exhibit thapsigargin-sensitive Ca(2+)-ATPase activity. Therefore, the segments Ile-163-Gly-354 and Lys-712-Ser-830 of the SERCA1 ATPase are sufficient for Ca2+ and thapsigargin sensitivity. The SERCA1-ATPase activity of [n/c]CC, but not of CCC, CNC, or CC[c/n], was further stimulated by addition of Na+ in the assay medium containing Ca2+. This additional stimulation of SERCA1-ATPase activity by Na+ was abolished when the amino-terminal region (Met-1-Leu-69) of [n/c]CC was deleted ([delta n/c]CC). In the absence of Na+, the SERCA1-ATPase activity of [n/c]CC was inhibited by ouabain, and, in the presence of Na+, its activity was stimulated by this drug. On the other hand, the ATPase activity of [delta n/c]CC was not affected by ouabain, although [delta n/c]CC can still bind [3H]ouabain. These results suggest that a distinct Na(+)-sensitive domain (Na+ sensor) located within the restricted amino-terminal region (Met-1-Leu-69) of the Na+,K(+)-ATPase alpha 1 subunit regulates ATPase activity. The Na+ sensor also controls ouabain action in concert with the major ouabain-binding region between Ala-70 and Asp-200 of alpha 1 subunit.

Modulation of the Na,K-pump function by beta subunit isoforms

To study the role of the Na,K-ATPase beta subunit in the ion transport activity, we have coexpressed the Bufo alpha 1 subunit (alpha 1) with three different isotypes of beta subunits, the Bufo Na,K-ATPase beta 1 (beta 1NaK) or beta 3 (beta 3NaK) subunit or the beta subunit of the rabbit gastric H,K-ATPase (beta HK), by cRNA injection in Xenopus oocyte. We studied the K+ activation kinetics by measuring the Na,K-pump current induced by external K+ under voltage clamp conditions. The endogenous oocyte Na,K-ATPase was selectively inhibited, taking advantage of the large difference in ouabain sensitivity between Xenopus and Bufo Na,K pumps. The K+ half-activation constant (K1/2) was higher in the alpha 1 beta 3NaK than in the alpha 1 beta 1NaK groups in the presence of external Na+, but there was no significant difference in the absence of external Na+. Association of alpha 1 and beta HK subunits produced active Na,K pumps with a much lower apparent affinity for K+ both in the presence and in the absence of external Na+. The voltage dependence of the K1/2 for external K+ was similar with the three beta subunits. Our results indicate that the beta subunit has a significant influence on the ion transport activity of the Na,K pump. The small structural differences between the beta 1NaK and beta 3NaK subunits results in a difference of the apparent affinity for K+ that is measurable only in the presence of external Na+, and thus appears not to be directly related to the K+ binding site. In contrast, association of an alpha 1 subunit with a beta HK subunit results in a Na,K pump in which the K+ binding or translocating mechanisms are altered since the apparent affinity for external K+ is affected even in the absence of external Na+.

Mechanisms of urinary K+ and H+ excretion: primary structure and functional expression of a novel H,K-ATPase

The kidney plays an essential role in regulating potassium and acid balance. A major site for these regulations is in the collecting tubule. In the present study, we report the primary sequence of a novel alpha subunit of the P-ATPase gene family, which we isolated from the urinary bladder epithelium of the toad Bufo marinus, the amphibian equivalent of the mammalian collecting tubule. The cDNA encodes a protein of 1,042 amino acids which shares approximately 67% identity with the alpha 1 subunit of the ouabain-inhibitable Na,K-ATPase and approximately 69% identity with the alpha subunit of the SCH28080-inhibitable gastric H,K-ATPase. When coexpressed in Xenopus oocytes with a beta subunit isolated from the same cDNA library, the ATPase is able to transport rubidium (a potassium surrogate) inward, and hydrogen outward, leading to alkalization of the intracellular compartment and acidification of the external medium. The novel ATPase has a unique pharmacological profile showing intermediate sensitivity to both ouabain and SCH28080. Our findings indicate that the bladder ATPase is a member of a new ion motive P-ATPase subfamily. The bladder ATPase is expressed in the urinary tract but not in the stomach or the colon. This H,K-ATPase may be one of the molecules involved in H+ and K+ homeostasis, mediating the transport of these ions across urinary epithelia and therefore regulating their urinary excretion.

Endogenous amino acid transport systems and expression of mammalian amino acid transport proteins in Xenopus oocytes

Oocyte amino acid transport has physiological significance to oocytes and practical importance to molecular biologists and transport physiologists. Expression of heterologous mRNA in Xenopus oocytes is currently being used to help clone cDNAs for amino acid transporters and their effectors. A major question to be resolved in many of these studies is whether the injected mRNA codes for a transporter or an activator of an endogenous system. Nevertheless, the cDNAs of several families of amino acid transporters or their activators appear already to have been cloned. One such transporter is the anion exchanger, band 3, which may also transport glycine and taurine under some important physiological conditions such as hypoosmotic stress. Site-directed mutagenesis of band 3 has already shown that an amino acid residue believed to be at or near the active site nevertheless does not appear to influence Cl- transport in Xenopus oocytes expressing the modified band 3 protein. Continuation of such studies along with examination of transport of all possible substrates of band 3 should yield insight into the relationship between the structure and function of this transporter. Each of three other families not only contains amino acid transporters, but also appears to contain members that serve as transporters of neurotransmitters or their metabolites. Because of the distinct structural differences in the preferred substrates of different transporters within some of these families, elucidation of the tertiary and possibly quaternary structural relationships among the members of such families may reveal transport mechanisms. In addition, the grouping of neurotransmitters or their metabolites according to the family to which their transport systems and transporters belong could yield insight into mechanisms of brain development, function and evolution. Another family of transporters for cationic amino acids also serves, at least in one case, as a viral receptor. Hence, these or other transporters also could conceivably function in eggs as receptors for sperm and, more broadly, in cell-cell interactions as well as in amino acid transport. Moreover, a family of apparent amino acid transport activators are homologous to a family of glycosidases, so these activators could also serve to recognize carbohydrate structures on other cells or the extracellular matrix. Some of these activators appear to increase more than one amino acid transport activity in Xenopus oocytes. In other studies, expression of heterologous mRNA in oocytes has led apparently to detection of inhibitors as well as activators of amino acid transport. Some amino acid transport systems also could conceivably contain nucleic acid as well as glycoprotein components.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Chimeric rat Na,K-ATPase alpha 1/alpha 3* isoforms. Analysis of the structural basis for differences in Na+ requirements in the alpha 1 and alpha 3* isoforms

Na,K-ATPase molecules containing the alpha 1, alpha 2*, and alpha 3* isoforms expressed in HeLa cells exhibit a two- to threefold difference in their K0.5 for Na+ (alpha 1 = alpha 2* < alpha 3*). To investigate the structural basis for this difference, chimeric alpha 1/alpha 3* isoform cDNAs were constructed and expressed in HeLa cells. Na,K-ATPase containing each alpha isoform chimera was analyzed for its Na+ dependence properties. Results of these experiments do not reveal a region in the alpha 1 or alpha 3* isoform that is clearly responsible for the apparent affinity for Na+. It is possible that molecular interactions involving amino acids that span virtually the entire Na,K-ATPase molecule contribute to the determination of this parameter.