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Lenz KM, McCarthy MM. Organized for sex - steroid hormones and the developing hypothalamus. Eur J Neurosci 2011; 32:2096-104. [PMID: 21143664 DOI: 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2010.07511.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Steroid hormones of gonadal origin act on the neonatal brain, particularly the hypothalamus, to produce sex differences that underlie copulatory behavior. Neuroanatomical sex differences include regional volume, cell number, connectivity, morphology, physiology, neurotransmitter phenotype and molecular signaling, all of which are determined by the action of steroid hormones, particularly by estradiol in males, and are established by diverse downstream effects. Sex differences in distinct hypothalamic regions can be organized by the same steroid hormone, but the direction of a sex difference is often specific to one region or cell type, illustrating the wide range of effects that steroid hormones have on the developing brain. Substantial progress has been made in elucidating the downstream mechanisms through which gonadal hormones sexually differentiate the brain, but gaps remain in establishing the precise relationship between changes in neuronal morphology and behavior. A complete understanding of sexual differentiation will require integrating the diverse mechanisms across multiple brain regions into a functional network that regulates behavioral output.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathryn M Lenz
- Department of Physiology and Program in Neuroscience, School of Medicine, University of Maryland, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA.
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Petralia SM, Frye CA. In the ventral tegmental area, cyclic AMP mediates the actions of progesterone at dopamine type 1 receptors for lordosis of rats and hamsters. J Neuroendocrinol 2006; 18:902-14. [PMID: 17076766 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2826.2006.01488.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Progesterone-facilitated lordosis is enhanced by activation of, and inhibited by antagonism of, dopamine type 1 receptors (D1) in the ventral tegmental area (VTA). Given that D1 activation leads to increases in cyclic AMP (cAMP), we hypothesised that, in the VTA, progesterone's actions on lordosis that involve D1 are mediated, in part, by cAMP. In Experiment 1, naturally receptive rats and hamsters were pretested for lordosis, infused with the cAMP analogue 8-bromo-cAMP (200 ng) or vehicle to the VTA, and tested again 30 min later. In Experiments 2 and 3, ovariectomised, oestradiol (10 microg) + progesterone (0 or 100 microg)-primed rats and oestradiol (10 microg) + progesterone (0 or 200 microg)-primed hamsters were pretested for lordosis and infused with 8-bromo-cAMP (200 ng), the adenylyl cyclase inhibitor 2',5'-dideoxyadenosine (12 microM) or vehicle to the VTA. Subjects were tested again 30 min later. In Experiment 4, oestradiol + progesterone-primed rats and hamsters were pretested and infused with the D1 agonist SKF38393 (0 or 100 ng) to the VTA. Thirty minutes later, subjects were tested again and infused with 2',5'-dideoxyadenosine (12 microM) or vehicle. Subjects were tested again 30 min later. VTA infusions of 8-bromo-cAMP enhanced lordosis of naturally receptive or hormone-primed rats and hamsters and 2',5'-dideoxyadenosine decreased lordosis of oestradiol + progesterone-primed rats and hamsters. D1-mediated increases in progesterone-facilitated lordosis were reduced by 2',5'-dideoxyadenosine. These data suggest that progesterone-facilitated lordosis of rats and hamsters may be modulated by D1 and cAMP activity in the VTA.
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Affiliation(s)
- S M Petralia
- Department of Psychology, The University of Albany-SUNY, Albany, NY 12222, USA
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Cohen-Bendahan CCC, van de Beek C, Berenbaum SA. Prenatal sex hormone effects on child and adult sex-typed behavior: methods and findings. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2005; 29:353-84. [PMID: 15811504 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2004.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 346] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2004] [Revised: 10/21/2004] [Accepted: 11/05/2004] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
There is now good evidence that human sex-typed behavior is influenced by sex hormones that are present during prenatal development, confirming studies in other mammalian species. Most of the evidence comes from clinical populations, in which prenatal hormone exposure is atypical for a person's sex, but there is increasing evidence from the normal population for the importance of prenatal hormones. In this paper, we briefly review the evidence, focusing attention on the methods used to study behavioral effects of prenatal hormones. We discuss the promises and pitfalls of various types of studies, including those using clinical populations (concentrating on those most commonly studied, congenital adrenal hyperplasia, androgen insensitivity syndrome, ablatio penis, and cloacal exstrophy), direct measures of hormones in the general population (assayed through umbilical cord blood, amniotic fluid, and maternal serum during pregnancy), and indirect measures of hormones in the general population (inferred from intrauterine position and biomarkers such as otoacoustic emissions, finger length ratios, and dermatoglyphic asymmetries). We conclude with suggestions for interpreting and conducting studies of the behavioral effects of prenatal hormones.
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Affiliation(s)
- Celina C C Cohen-Bendahan
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, and Rudolf Magnus Institute of Neuroscience, University Medical Center Utrecht, The Netherlands
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Berenbaum SA. How hormones affect behavioral and neural development: Introduction to the special issue on “gonadal hormones and sex differences in behavior”. Dev Neuropsychol 1998. [DOI: 10.1080/87565649809540708] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Leveroni CL, Berenbaum SA. Early androgen effects on interest in infants: Evidence from children with congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Dev Neuropsychol 1998. [DOI: 10.1080/87565649809540714] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Johnston HM, Payne AP, Gilmore DP. Perinatal exposure to morphine affects adult sexual behavior of the male golden hamster. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 1992; 42:41-4. [PMID: 1528945 DOI: 10.1016/0091-3057(92)90443-j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Duromorph, a long-acting form of morphine, was administered to pregnant golden hamsters and/or their pups over the last 4 days of pregnancy and/or the first 4 days after birth. As adults, offspring were gonadectomized, primed with estrogen and progesterone, and tested for their ability to display feminine sexual behavior when placed with a stud male. They were then given testosterone over a 4-week period and tested for their ability to display masculine sexual behavior in the presence of a receptive female. Perinatal morphine exposure had little effect on the females' ability to display either feminine or masculine sexual behavior. In contrast, feminine sexual behavior was significantly enhanced in males exposed to morphine over the perinatal period. This suggests that exposure to opiates during the critical period of sexual differentiation may prevent the defeminization process in this species.
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Affiliation(s)
- H M Johnston
- Department of Anatomy, University of Glasgow, Scotland, UK
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Olsen KL. A comparison of the effects of three androgens on sexual differentiation in female hamsters. Physiol Behav 1988; 42:569-73. [PMID: 3261873 DOI: 10.1016/0031-9384(88)90159-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
The effectiveness of the synthetic androgen 17 beta-hydroxy-17 alpha-methyl-estra-4,9,11-triene-3-one (R 1881), 5 alpha-dihydrotestosterone (DHT), and testosterone to suppress the development of lordotic behavior in female hamsters were compared. Selection of these three androgens was based upon their ability to identify the active agent in defeminization. While all three hormones bind with high affinity to CNS androgen receptors, R 1881 differs from DHT because it is presumably not metabolized into less potent androgens and differs from testosterone because it is presumably not metabolized into estrogen. At birth, female hamsters were given either a single injection of 100 micrograms of hormone, five daily injections of 100 micrograms of hormone, or implanted with Silicone elastomer capsules containing hormone. Controls consisted of hamsters receiving oil injections or cholesterol implants. As adults, the hamsters wee gonadectomized, injected with estradiol benzoate and progesterone and then tested for lordosis. A single injection of androgen at birth was ineffective in suppressing lordosis duration in female hamsters. Multiple injections and implants of R 1881 or testosterone inhibited the development of female sexual behavior. R 1881 administered as five daily injections or implanted for seven days caused a similar partial reduction in lordosis duration. Testosterone was more effective in inhibiting receptivity when given as implants rather than injection. No differences were observed between females receiving testosterone implants at birth and males. DHT had no appreciable effect upon the development of behavior regardless of the route of administration or the length of treatment.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)
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Affiliation(s)
- K L Olsen
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Science, State University of New York, Stony Brook 11794-8101
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Abstract
Adult rhesus monkeys were observed in standardized tests for female-typical sexual and related social responses. In the first experiment reported, 7 castrated males and 5 spayed females were paired with each of 4 intact males on two occasions following intramuscular injection with estradiol benzoate (EB) (6 micrograms/kg X 14 days) and on two other occasions without such treatment. In tests without EB, males and females did not behave differently toward the intact male partners, and all responses were displayed at low frequencies. In tests with EB, females showed reliably higher frequencies than males of approaching, sitting close to, grooming, and soliciting, and they presented to a higher proportion of the male partner's sexual contacts. EB reliably increased the frequency of display of all of these same five responses in females but not in castrated males. The intact male partners displayed reliably fewer approaches, sexual contacts, mounts, intromissions, and ejaculations to castrated males than to spayed females regardless of estrogenization. In a second experiment 10 intact adult pseudohermaphroditic females and 6 intact control females were tested following EB injections with each of the same 4 intact males. Pseudohermaphrodites were experimentally produced by injecting pregnant females with either testosterone propionate (TP) or dihydrotestosterone propionate (DHTP). Pseudohermaphrodites, regardless of type of androgen used in their production, showed reliably fewer solicits than controls to male partners. Moreover, they displayed most of the other responses at lower average frequencies than controls. Frequencies of intromission and ejaculation by intact male partners were reliably lower with pseudohermaphrodites than with control females, but frequencies of approach, sexual contact, and mount were not reliably different. We conclude that in this testing and measurement situation male and female rhesus monkeys differ markedly in the degree of expression of female-typical sexual behaviors, and genotypic males are behaviorally less responsive to estrogens than females. Exposing genotypic females to androgens during fetal life decreases the expression of female-typical, estrogen-influenced responses, and the effect is most pronounced on those soliciting responses that subserve proceptivity.
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Ellis L. Evidence of neuroandrogenic etiology of sex roles from a combined analysis of human, nonhuman primate and nonprimate mammalian studies. PERSONALITY AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 1986. [DOI: 10.1016/0191-8869(86)90131-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Stern JM, Strait T. Reproductive success, postpartum maternal behavior, and masculine sexual behavior of neonatally androgenized female hamsters. Horm Behav 1983; 17:208-24. [PMID: 6885008 DOI: 10.1016/0018-506x(83)90008-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Sex differences in maternal behavior induced by pup stimulation (sensitization) have been reported for rats and hamsters and may be affected by the presence or absence of perinatal androgen treatment. Postpartum maternal behavior and litter survival in golden hamsters treated with testosterone propionate (TP) as neonates were studied. A high dose of TP (300 micrograms)1 eliminated feminine reproductive capacity when given on Day 2 or 4 postpartum and had no discernible effect on Day 12. Treatment on Days 6, 8, or 10 resulted in treatment day-dependent deficiencies in reproductive success which fell short of sterility in most females. These deficiencies included low birth weight, weight gain, and higher litter losses than controls. However, the maternal behavior of TP dams, as measured by retrieval and crouching, appeared to be normal. The disparity between delivery and successful rearing of normal-weight young may include uterine incompetence, lactation deficiency, and hypercannibalism. Behavioral masculinization was a more sensitive index of neonatal androgen action than any aspect of defeminization, but the two phenomena were dissociated in individuals.
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Etgen AM. Differential effects of two estrogen antagonists on the development of masculine and feminine sexual behavior in hamsters. Horm Behav 1981; 15:299-311. [PMID: 7298029 DOI: 10.1016/0018-506x(81)90019-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
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Lisk RD. Masculinized female hamsters do not require steroid treatment when adult for activation of the male copulatory response pattern. Psychoneuroendocrinology 1980; 5:305-17. [PMID: 7208751 DOI: 10.1016/0306-4530(80)90034-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
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Lisk RD. Uncoupling of the sexual receptivity (lordosis) hormone relationships by estradiol benzoate and testosterone propionate injection in neonatal hamsters of both sexes. Psychoneuroendocrinology 1980; 5:191-201. [PMID: 7413890 DOI: 10.1016/0306-4530(80)90023-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
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Cotman CW, McGaugh JL. Development of Behavior. Behav Neurosci 1980. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-191650-3.50021-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Abstract
The evidence reviewed suggests that in all mammalian species the adult male's ability to display masculine coital behavior depends in part on exposure of the developing brain to testicular testosterone or its metabolites. In many mammals, particularly rodents, ruminants, and some carnivores, perinatal exposure to androgen also causes behavioral defeminization, i.e., reduced capacity to display typically feminine coital behavior in response to gonadal hormones in adulthood. The data reviewed suggest that no such process occurs in certain other mammalian species, including ferret, rhesus monkey, marmoset, and man. Testicular androgen may cause behavioral defeminization only in those species in which expression of feminine sexual behavior normally depends on the neural action of progesterone, acting synergistically with estradiol; new data support this claim in the ferret. The possible contribution of estrogenic and 5 alpha-reduced androgenic metabolites of testosterone to the occurrence of behavioral masculinization and defeminization is considered in those mammalian species for which data are available.
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Etgen AM, Whalen RE. Musculinization and defeminization induced in female hamsters by neonatal treatment with estradiol, RU-2858, and nafoxidine. Horm Behav 1979; 12:211-7. [PMID: 546708 DOI: 10.1016/0018-506x(79)90003-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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Payne AP. Neonatal androgen administration and sexual behaviour: behavioural responses and hormonal responsiveness of female golden hamsters. Anim Behav 1979; 27 Pt 1:242-50. [PMID: 555841 DOI: 10.1016/0003-3472(79)90144-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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Clemens LG, Popham TV, Ruppert PH. Neonatal treatment of hamsters with barbiturate alters adult sexual behavior. Dev Psychobiol 1979; 12:49-59. [PMID: 478177 DOI: 10.1002/dev.420120106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Male and female hamsters were given 50 micrograms pentobarbital, 100 micrograms pentobarbital, or 100 micrograms d-amphetamine on postnatal Days 2-4. When tested for masculine sexual behavior in adulthood, males treated with 100 micrograms pentobarbital showed behavioral deficits when tested with testes intact as well as after castration and treatment with testosterone propionate. Deficits shown by 50 micrograms pentobarbital males were overcome by testosterone replacement. When tested for feminine sexual behavior, males treated with 50 micrograms pentobarbital showed enhanced lordotic responses whereas males treated with 100 micrograms d-amphetamine showed no differences from controls when tested for female sexual behavior or when tested for male sexual behavior. Drug treatments had no effect on adult masculine or feminine sexual behavior in neonatally treated females. The results of this study show that pentobarbital can inhibit normal masculinization of the male when given during behavioral sexual differentiation.
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DeBold JF. Modification of nuclear retention of [3H]estradiol by cells of the hypothalamus as a function of early hormone experience. Brain Res 1978; 159:416-20. [PMID: 728812 DOI: 10.1016/0006-8993(78)90550-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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DeBold JF, Clemens LG. Aromatization and the induction of male sexual behavior in male, female, and androgenized female hamsters. Horm Behav 1978; 11:401-13. [PMID: 753702 DOI: 10.1016/0018-506x(78)90040-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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Whalen RE, Etgen AM. Masculinization and defeminization induced in female hamsters by neonatal treatment with estradiol benzoate and RU-2858. Horm Behav 1978; 10:170-7. [PMID: 689590 DOI: 10.1016/0018-506x(78)90006-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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Abbott DH, Hearn JP. The effects of neonatal exposure to testosterone on the development of behaviour in female marmoset monkeys. CIBA FOUNDATION SYMPOSIUM 1978:299-327. [PMID: 111908 DOI: 10.1002/9780470720448.ch14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Experimental investigations of sexual differentiation in primates have been mainly confined to the rhesus monkey, a highly polygamous species with marked anatomical and behavioural sexual dimorphism. The marmoset is a monogamous monkey which shows little anatomical or behavioural sexual dimorphism, and both sexes exhibit positive feedback in response to the administration of oestradiol. This monkey has a relatively short gestation period of 144 days and usually gives birth to dizygotic twins. These share a common placental circulation and hence develop as haematopoietic chimaeras. However, a female with a male co-twin is not adversely affected as a result of this and the freemartin condition does not occur. Since the newborn male experiences raised testosterone levels soon after birth it is possible that the 'critical period' for sexual marmosets were implanted with 25 mg of testosterone for 50 days after birth. After removal of the implants their genitalia remained partly masculinized and they initiated more masculine rough-and-tumble play than their controls. After puberty they exhibited a mixture of male and female sexual behaviour when presented with unfamiliar normal males and females during 15-minute behavioural trials. Four of the implanted females have also ovulated. Neonatal administration of testosterone therefore has had an organizing effect on female behaviour. Whether the marmoset is exceptional in this respect, or whether other primates which exhibit a male neonatal testosterone surge, such as man and the rhesus monkey, also undergo some postnatal behavioural differentation, remains to be seen.
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Hormonal Influences on Brain and Behavioral Development. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1978. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-609304-9.50011-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/17/2023]
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