Superinduction of tyrosine aminotransferase by actinomycin D in rat hepatoma (HTC) cells

Stepping stones in the path of glucocorticoid-driven apoptosis of lymphoid cells

Cumulative work on glucocorticoid (GC) regulation of genes in lymphoid cell cultures has revealed that apoptotic sensitivity to GCs depends on sufficient active GC receptors in the cells. The actions of the ligand-driven GC receptor that lead to apoptosis depend on interactions with other major cell-signaling systems, including the MAPK pathways, the cAMP/PKA pathway, the hedgehog pathway, the mTOR system and the c-myc system. The balance between these systems determines whether a given cell responds to GCs by undergoing apoptosis. A central core of networked genes may be found under GC control in many types of malignant, GC-sensitive cells. The partial core list identified should be tested in clinical cell samples from hematologic malignancies.

Differential recruitment of glucocorticoid receptor phospho-isoforms to glucocorticoid-induced genes

The human glucocorticoid receptor (GR) is phosphorylated on its N-terminus at three major sites (S203, S211 and S226) within activation function 1 (AF1). Although GR has been shown to assemble at glucocorticoid responsive elements (GREs) in the presence of hormone, the timing and specificity of GR phospho-isoform recruitment to receptor target genes has not been established. Using chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) and GR phosphorylation site-specific antibodies, we examined GR phospho-isoform recruitment to several glucocorticoid-induced genes including tyrosine aminotransferase (tat) and sulfonyltransferase-1A1 (sult) in rat hepatoma cells, and the glucocorticoid-induced leucine zipper (gilz) gene in human U2OS cells. GR P-S211 and GR P-S226 isoforms were efficiently recruited to the tat, sult and gilz GREs in a hormone-dependent manner. In contrast, the GR P-S203 isoform displayed no significant recruitment to any GREs of the genes analyzed, consistent with its lack of nuclear accumulation. Interestingly, the kinetics of GR P-S211 and GR P-S226 recruitment differed among genes. Our findings indicate that GR phospho-isoforms selectively occupy GR target genes, and suggests gene specific requirements for GR phosphorylation in receptor-dependent transcriptional activation.

Basic fibroblast growth factor induces 3T3 fibroblasts to synthesize and secrete a cyclophilin-like protein and beta 2-microglobulin

When stimulated by fibroblast growth factor (FGF) BALB/c 3T3 cells synthesize and secrete elevated amounts of five proteins called the 'superinducible proteins', or SIPs. The expression of these proteins is greatly enhanced if the cells are treated with cycloheximide during induction. The 24 kDa protein (SIP24) has been purified and antiserum raised against it. This protein is N-glycosylated and probably structurally constrained by one or more intramolecular disulfide bonds. The amino acid sequences of three of four peptides show significant identity with cyclophilin, an abundant cytoplasmic protein believed to mediate the immunosuppressive effects of cyclosporin A. Several members of the cyclophilin family have been identified, and cDNA clones of two cyclophilin-like proteins with signal sequences have been reported. Here we show that at least one cyclophilin-like protein is secreted and that its expression is regulated by growth factors. The 12.5 kDa protein (SIP12.5) was found to be immunoprecipitated by an antiserum raised to human beta 2-microglobulin. This protein is strongly induced by interferon, which is a characteristic of the beta 2-microglobulin gene. Thus, FGF stimulates mouse embryo 3T3 cells to produce two proteins related to immune regulatory molecules. This may reflect an interaction between immune cells and nonimmune cells that occurs in vivo during processes such as wound healing when growth factors are released locally.

Insulin-mediated regulation of tyrosine aminotransferase in rat hepatoma cells: inhibition of transcription and inhibition of enzyme degradation

Insulin induces the enzyme tyrosine aminotransferase (TAT) in Reuber H-35 rat hepatoma cells. A clone of these cells (KRC-7) was used to study the relationship between changes in enzyme activity and hybridizable mRNA, and rates of transcription for TAT in response to insulin. Our results indicate that enzyme activity is inducible by insulin in the presence of an inhibitor of RNA synthesis, suggesting that insulin functions post-transcriptionally to increase enzyme activity. Unexpectedly, insulin causes a decrease in the level of hybridizable TAT mRNA. Glucocorticoids cause an increase in TAT mRNA and insulin inhibits this increase when added either subsequent to or simultaneous with the addition of this agonist. Transcriptional runoffs demonstrate that insulin inhibits transcription of TAT to account for the aforementioned decrease in hybridizable mRNA. To examine the possibility that a post-translational mechanism is responsible for the increase in TAT activity caused by insulin, the rate of degradation of TAT protein was measured using polyclonal antibody. These experiments indicate that the rate of degradation of TAT is decreased about twofold in the presence of insulin, which suggests that part of the observed increase in TAT activity is due to selective post-translational stabilization of TAT. Therefore, insulin regulates TAT in KRC-7 cells by both transcriptional and post-translational mechanisms, the latter being responsible for the increase in activity.

Superinduction by cycloheximide of mitogen-induced secreted proteins produced by Balb/c 3T3 cells

We describe here some of the characteristics of the regulation of a group of secretory proteins whose secreted levels rise within 2-4 h of adding fibroblast growth factor (FGF), epidermal growth factor (EGF), or serum to quiescent Balb/c 3T3 cells. The levels of these secretory proteins are regulated similarly to the interferons. When cycloheximide is present during the induction period, the amounts of [35S]methionine incorporated into five of these proteins that we have called "superinducible proteins" (SIPs) is increased 2-5-fold. Superinduction of the SIPs is seen also in response to polyribol-polyriboC, the classical inducer of interferons. None of the SIPs, however, are immuno-precipitated by anti-beta-interferon antibody. Induction and superinduction of the SIPs is inhibited by actinomycin D. Superinduction occurs at concentrations of cycloheximide that inhibit protein synthesis by at least 85%. The SIPs are not major intracellular proteins; they are barely detectable in cellular fractions. Their induction is, however, correlated with the ability of the polypeptide growth factor to stimulate DNA synthesis; EGF, FGF, and serum induce the SIPs, whereas insulin does not, and insulin alone weakly stimulates DNA synthesis in these cells. Because FGF, EGF, and serum cause the SIPs to be produced at concentrations of cycloheximide that inhibit 85% of bulk protein and DNA synthesis, it follows that the SIPs are produced directly from the action of the growth factor and not as a consequence of increased growth. Although probably not interferons, in analogy to the lymphokines, the SIPs could be a set of autocrine or paracrine factors that rapidly convey the growth or differentiation signal between cells.

Actinomycin D and cycloheximide actions on activity of some intestinal enzymes of adult hamster

Actinomycin D, at a dose of 0.25 micrograms/g body wt, produced slight increases in intestinal enzymatic activity on hamsters. At a high dose (1.5 micrograms/g body wt), actinomycin D produced inhibition of lactase activity, whereas maltase, sucrase and alkaline phosphatase activity decreased in males and increased in females. Cycloheximide (1.5 micrograms/g body wt), produced no changes in enzymatic activity. In the male and female hamster, the different actions of the antibiotic can be explained by the variations in the cortisol release produced by stress.

Glucocorticoid-dependent uteroglobin synthesis and uteroglobulin mRNA levels in rabbit lung explants cultured in vitro

In rabbit lung explants cultured in vitro in a synthetic medium, the synthesis of the protein uteroglobin decayed progressively becoming virtually undetectable between 24-48 h of culture. Addition of glucocorticoids to the medium maintained the synthesis of uteroglobin. This glucocorticoid effect was dose-dependent with optima at about 0.1 microM and 1 microM for dexamethasone and cortisol respectively. Estradiol, progesterone, triiodothyronine, insulin or 10% calf serum added to the medium were ineffective in maintaining uteroglobin synthesis. Actinomycin D (10 micrograms/ml) added to the medium inhibited the effect of cortisol on uteroglobin synthesis. After 24 h of culture, both the relative levels of uteroglobin mRNA, measured by molecular hybridization, and uteroglobin synthesis were correlatively higher (up to 10-fold) in glucocorticoid-treated than in control explants.

Inhibition of tyrosine aminotransferase induction by UTP deficiency and its reversal by 5-fluorouridine in cultured hepatoma cells

Hepatoma tissue culture cells, grown in the presence of D-galactosamine and 6-azauridine, demonstrate a strong reduction of the intracellular UTP pool that can be replenished by formation of UTP from uridine and FUTP from 5-fluorouridine within 2 h. Concomitantly with the UTP deficiency, a decrease of dexamethasone-induced tyrosine aminotransferase activity occurs. 5-Fluorouridine, as compared to uridine, is even more efficient in restoring the activity of tyrosine aminotransferase. Treatment of the cells with D-galactosamine alone results in a minor lowering of UTP that is not followed by the inhibition of the enzyme induction. However, the administration of D-galactosamine, simultaneously or at any time up to 5 h before or after dexamethasone, leads to a 1.5- to 2-fold higher induction (superinduction) which appears 24 h later.

Further evidence for translational regulation of tyrosine aminotransferase synthesis by dibutyryl cyclic AMP in Reuber H35 hepatoma cells

Cyclic AMP derivatives increase the rate of synthesis of tyrosine aminotransferase in Reuber H35 hepatoma cells. Various studies lend support to the hypothesis that cyclic AMP increases the synthesis of tyrosine aminotransferase by acting at a posttranscriptional site. The presence of a limited non-translatable pool of tyrosine aminotransferase mRNA prior to the formation of the translatable tyrosine aminotransferase mRNA implicates a possible site of action of cyclic AMP. We compared the capacity of N6,O2'-dibutyryl cyclic AMP to induce tyrosine aminotransferase synthesis when untranslatable tyrosine aminotransferase mRNA sequences are present or absent. The transition of a condition in which non-translatable tyrosine aminotransferase mRNA sequences were present to a condition in which they were absent was established by preinduction of Reuber H35 cells with dexamethasone, followed by addition of actinomycin D. In the time period thereafter, the amount of non-translatable mRNA decreased and 1.5-2 h after addition of actinomycin D, only translatable tyrosine aminotransferase mRNA was present. It can be seen that the induction of tyrosine aminotransferase synthesis by dibutyryl cyclic AMP follows the normal decrease of tyrosine aminotransferase mRNA. We present evidence that dibutyryl cyclic AMP in Reuber H35 hepatoma cells regulates tyrosine aminotransferase synthesis at a posttranscriptional site independent of the pool of non-translatable tyrosine aminotransferase mRNA sequences, but influencing the efficiency of translation of active tyrosine aminotransferase mRNA.

Regulation of rat-liver tyrosine-aminotransferase mRNA by hydrocortisone and by N6,O2'-dibutyryladenosine 3',5'-phosphate

The intraperitoneal injection of either hydrocortisone of N6,O2'-dibutyryladenosine 3',5'-phosphate (Bt2cAMP) results in a specific increase in functional tyrosine aminotransferase mRNA (mRNATAT) activity in rat liver that is proportional to the degree of enzyme induction. Both require continuous RNA synthesis. There are several differences in the response to these inducers: (a) the magnitude of the increase is greater following hydrocortisone injection than after Bt2cAMP; (b) the peak response is seen within 1 h following the injection of Bt2cAMP as compared to the 5 h required for the maximal response following hydrocortisone injection; (c) finally, although both responses are rapid, the lag period which precedes the accumulation of functional tyrosine aminotransferase mRNA activity following the injection of hydrocortisone is at least 20 min whereas following Bt2cAMP it is 5-10 min. The administration of actinomycin D to rats 5 h after they were treated with hydrocortisone causes an additional twofold increase in tyrosine aminotransferase enzymatic activity, a phenomenon known as superinduction, but does not prevent the normal decrease in its mRNA seen at this time. This dissociation of enzyme and mRNA activities indicates that superinduction of tyrosine aminotransferase is not due to a selective stabilization of the mRNA which codes for this protein.

Unlinked control of multiple glucocorticoid-induced processes in HTC cells

HTC cell variants chosen for their lack of tyrosine aminotransferase (EC 2.6.1.5) (TAT) induction by glucocorticoids were tested for interrelated effects on other glucocorticoid responses: TAT induction by dibutyryl cyclic AMP (dBcAMP) +/- dexamethasone, glutamine synthetase (GS) induction, cyclic nucleotide phosphodieterase (PDE) suppression, inhibition of alpha-aminoisobutyric acid (AIB) uptake, inhibition of plasminogen activator (PA), and induction of mouse mammary tumor virus (MTV). Loss of TAT induction by steroid was accompanied by loss of TAT induction by dBcAMP and of PDE suppression by steroid. In addition, subclones of MTV-infected cells were examined for the effect of the virus on glutamine synthetase (GS) and TAT induction. The virus had no effect on their induction in wild-type cells and no effect on GS induction in the variants. One MTV-infected subclone from a TAT variant, however, showed significant return of TAT induction.

Molecular control of rabbit follicular testosterone production. Role of protein and RNA after stimulation with luteinizing hormone

The time and dose dependence of the relationship between uptake of labelled precursors into protein and RNA and production of testosterone by rabbit follicles was examined. Although testosterone production was stimulated by luteinizing hormone at concentrations between 0.1 and 10 microgram/ml, the uptake of [3H]leucine into protein was significant only when the concentration of luteinizing hormone was greater than 2.5 microgram/ml. Increased production of testosterone was observed within 15 min of stimulation with luteinizing hormone whereas uptake of [3H]leucine was only significant at 90 min. Puromycin (40 microgram/ml) and cycloheximide (10 microgram/ml) in the presence of luteinizing hormone inhibited the synthesis of both testosterone and protein. However, lower concentrations of puromycin (0.1, 1 and 10 microgram/ml) and cycloheximide (1 microgram/ml) had no effect on luteinizing hormone-induced testosterone production but significantly inhibited protein synthesis by 58, 37, 31 and 71%, respectively. Actinomycin D (20, 80 and 160 microgram/ml) alone and in combination with 5 microgram luteinizing hormone/ml severely inhibited uptake of [3H]uridine into RNA without affecting testosterone production. However, with 1 microgram actinomycin/ml, testosterone production was significantly (P less than 0.01) greater than in the presence of luteinizing hormone alone. These results cast doubt on the obligatory role of RNA and protein synthesis in rabbit ovarian follicular steroidogenesis.

Glucocorticoid induction of tyrosine aminotransferase in cultured cells

For over a decade, tyrosine aminotransferase induction in tissue culture cells has been a useful model system in which to study glucocorticosteroid action. In the 1960s, the establishment in culture of rat hepatomas expressing the inducible enzyme, already known to be induced in liver in vivo, provoked a wide-ranging series of experiments. The data from these experiments have provided considerable information regarding the mechanism of action of steroids. These include the fundamental facts that the steroids act directly on the induced cell in unmetablized form, that removal of steroid results in deinduction, that induction does not require DNA synthesis or massive changes in RNA synthesis, and that cytoplasmic receptor occupancy by active steroids correlates closely with the steroids' ability to affect inductions. Studies in tissue culture cells have led to the analysis of transcriptional and posttranscriptional models attempting to explain enzyme induction. The effects on enzyme induction of nonsteroid hormones and other factors have been studied through the use of tissue culture cells. Finally, cells and clones of cell variants are being used to study enzyme induction, through biochemical analysis and cell genetic approaches, including somatic cell hybridization.

Elevation of HeLa cell 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase activity by glucocorticoids: possible relationship to the cell cycle

Elevation of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase (HMG-CoA reductase, EC 1.1.1.34) activity by glucocorticoids was shown to be dependent on the concentration of hormone in the medium over a range of 5 X 10(-10) to 1 X 10(-8) M, although the presence of steroid in the assay at 10(-5) M elicited no increase in activity. There was a demonstrated time dependence for the addition of dexamethasone i.e., from zero to six hours after serum removal, addition of hormone resulted in the same peak acitvity; addition at 12 hours gave slight elevation but resulted in an extended maintenance of the peak level of activity; addition at 24 hours showed no effect. When cycloheximide was added to the above times, subsequent kinetics showed identical decay of the enzyme activities from control and treated cultures at 6 and 24 hours, but at 12 hours the activity from dexamethasone treated cells exhibited an extended lag before the onset of decay, which then proceeded at the same rate as the control. The continuous presence of the hormone was not necessary for the induction to continue and the addition of Actinomycin D to cultures incubated in the presence of hormone resulted in an immediate decay of catalytic activity without evidence of "superinduction." The addition of progesterone at the same time as dexamethasone resulted in a concentration-dependent inhibition of the augmentation, suggesting the involvement of the glucocorticoid receptor in the elevation of HMG-CoA reductase activity. Flow microfluorometric (FMF) analysis of hormone treated cells indicated a delayed entrance into the DNA synthesis (S) phase of the cell cycle. The temporal relationships between this cell cycle perturbation and HMG-CoA reductase elevation are discussed.

Glucocorticoids and the plasma membrane

Glucocorticoids affect the composition and function of the plasma membrane in a variety of cell types. Cultured rat hepatoma (HTC) cells in tissue culture provide an excellent model system for analysis of such effects. In these cells, dexamethasone rapidly and dramatically inhibits the influx of amino acids sharing the A or alanine-preferring transport system. Inhibition is half-maximal within 2 h, and maximal after 6 h incubation with the hormone. The inhibition is rapidly reversed by insulin, and more slowly by removing the steroid. Microtubules and microfilaments are not apparently involved in this hormonal effect, but continuous protein synthesis is required for the glucocorticoid inhibition of transport. Dexamethasone also decreases the number of microvilli on the surface of HTC cells, increases their adhesiveness to a substratum, and dramatically decreases the production of plasminogen activator, but it does not affect the growth rate or plating efficiency of the cells. Variant cell lines stably resistant to dexamethasone inhibition of plasminogen activator production have been isolated using an agar-fibrin overlay technique to detect protease production by individual colonies of HTC cells. The hormonal resistance to inhibition of protease production is associated witha maintenance of inducibility of other glucocorticoid-regulated functions and therefore is not apparently secondary to abnormal or absent glucocorticoid receptor, but due to a lesion in a later step in hormone action specific for plasminogen activator. Combined genetic and biochemical analysis of such dexamethasone-resistant variants should facilitate study of the hormonal regulation of specific membrane phenotypes and of the role of proteases in this regulation.

Posttranscriptional regulation of glucocorticoid-regulated functions

Relying heavily on studies of TAT regulation in cultured rat hepatoma cell lines, we have attempted in this brief review to discuss possible mechanisms for posttranscriptional regulation of glucocorticoid-sensitive enzymes and to chronicle the evidence for and against posttranscriptional mechanisms for specific enzyme induction by glucocorticoids. Initially, mechanisms were considered that would reconcile results showing sensitivity of both induction and deinduction of TAT to inhibitors of RNA synthesis with studies demonstrating first that glucocorticoids regulate the rates of specific enzyme synthesis and, then, that glucocorticoids regulate levels of enzyme-specific mRNA. Such reconciliation proved unnecessary when it was demonstrated that inhibitors of RNA synthesis such as actinomycin D were not specific for RNA synthesis, but also had effects on mRNA turnover and protein metabolism. The bulk of evidence to date establishes that glucocorticoids promote the production of enzyme-specific mRNA for the proteins whose synthesis is regulated by thses steroids. Nevertheless, there is still very little direct evidence that steroids can modulate rates of specific gene transcription. The glucocorticoid stimulation of mouse mammary tumor virus RNA production in cultured cell lines is the only example to date where such a mechanism is supported by RNA-DNA hybridization studies. Posttranscriptional actions of steroids on the turnover, processing, or extranuclear transport of specific mRNA precursors remain potential steps at which glucocorticoids might function. The rapid turnover of some glucocorticoid-regulated enzymes and their mRNAs not only ensures a rapid response to steroid addition or withdrawal, but also subjects these proteins to relatively large fluctuations upon alterations in overall protein or mRNA metabolism. Thus many of the inductions and repressions of hepatic TAT and TO by mediators other than the glucocorticoids may be attributable entirely to nonspecific mechanisms.

The stability of tyrosine aminotransferase and other proteins in enucleated rat hepatoma tissue culture cells

The role of the nucleus in bringing about the induction of tyrosine aminotransferase (TAT) by glucocorticosteroid hormone and its deinduction upon steroid removal has been studied in enucleated rat hepatoma tissue culture cells (FU5-5). Both processes require the presence of the nucleus. However, cytoplasts from preinduced cells show an initial rapid decline in enzyme activity immediately after enucleation followed by maintenance of a constant level of activity. This initial decline in enzyme activity can be partially prevented by trypan blue, an inhibitor of lysosomal activity. This suggests that the early fall in enzyme activity could be due to an increase in the level of lysosomal activity immediately after enucleation. The subsequent constant level of activity seems due to maintenance rather than synthesis and degradation since it is not affected by cycloheximide. The absence of degradation applies to other kinds of proteins in enucleated FU5-5 cells and enucleated mouse fibroblast L cells. These experiments suggest that some kind of labile RNA or protein dependent on the presence of the nucleus is required for the degradation of all classes of proteins in different kinds of cells.

Stimulation of in vitro translation of messenger RNA by actinomycin D and cordycepin

Actinomycin D and cordycepin were tested for their effect on translation in the wheat germ embryo extract and reticulocyte lysate assays for in vitro protein synthesis. Both drugs were found to stimulate the incorporation of 35S-labeled methionine into protein up to threefold as compared to control assays. This was true for synthesis directed by murine myeloma polyadenylate-containing RNA, tobacco mosaic virus RNA, and endogenous reticulocyte messenger RNA.

Turnover of polyadenylated messenger RNA in fission yeast. Evidence for the control of protein synthesis at the translational level

Polyadenylated RNA was isolated from fission yeast (Schizosaccharomyces pombe) total RNA using oligo(dT)-cellulose, and was studied as a model for messenger RNA. The half-life of poly adenylated RNA was measured by two independent methods. (a) The rate of labelling of polyadenylated RNA during incubation of cells with [5-3H]uridine was measured. A half-life of 40-45 min was found by comparing the experimental data with theoretical curves calculated for labelling of RNAs with various half-lives. The influence of precursor-pool specific activity on RNA labelling kinetics is considered. (b) Cells were labelled with [5-3H]uridine then further RNA synthesis was inhibited by addition of 8-hydroxyquinoline. The rate of loos of radioactivity from polyadenylated RNA indicated a half-life of 50 min. The half-life found by these two methods is about one-third of the cell doubling time, and is much longer than previous estimates by indirect methods of yeast messenger RNA half-life. Both experimental methods provided evidence for the existence of tas a half-life of 40-50 min; a much smaller population is probably turning over more rapidly. After inhibition of RNA synthesis by 8-hydroxyquinoline, the rate of total protein synthesis declined much more rapidly than the polyadenylated RNA content of the cells. However, 60 min after inhibition of RNA synthesis there was a small rise in the rate of portein synthesis. These data are interpreted as evidence for mechanisms controlling protein synthesis which operate at the level of messenger RNA translation.

Functional level of rat liver tryptophan 2,3-dixoygenase messenger RNA during superinduction of enzyme with actinomycin D

Tryptophan 2,3-dioxygenase [EC 1.13.11.11; L-tryptophan:oxygen 2,3-oxidoreductase (decyclizing)] activity is induced by glucocorticoid hormones and superinduced by actinomycin D. Previous experiments had shown that hormonal induction of the enzyme activity is accompanied by parallel increases in tryptophan 2,3-dioxygenase mRNA level. In this study, we measured the tryptophan 2,3-dioxygenase mRNA levels during superinduction as well as hormonal induction, to determine whether superinduction of the enzyme activity is also mediated through changes in mRNA concentration. Tryptophan 2,3-dioxygenase mRNA was measured in a Krebs ascites cell-free protein synthesizing system supplemented with rabbit reticulocyte initiation factors. We found that during superinduction of the enzyme activity by actinomycin D, the mRNA level is identical to that of the actinomycin D-free controls. Our results do not, therefore, support the hypothesis that hormonal induction and/or superinduction of tryptophan 2,3-dioxygenase mRNA are regulated by a rapidly turning over repressor.

Serum-free growth of HTC cells containing glucocorticoid- and insulin-inducible tyrosine aminotransferase and cytoplasmic glucocorticoid receptors

HTC cells have been made to grow in chemically defined medium without any macromolecular supplements whatsoever. Initial estimates of their relative amino acid requirements have been made. The cells grown in the defined medium retain many of the differentiated features which have been the focus of investigation in their serum-grown counterparts. Thus, the cells in defined medium contain cytoplasmic glucocorticoid receptors and have tyrosine aminotransferase which can be induced by glucocorticoids, serum or insulin. These cells also produce, in small amounts, an as yet undefined rat serum protein.

The effects of metabolic inhibitors on the synthesis of inducible tyrosine aminotransferase in cultured hepatoma cells

The effects of actinomycin-D and 3'-deoxyadenosine (cordycepin) on the steroid-mediated induction of tyrosine aminotransferase (TAT) synthesis have been reexamined in view of recent reports that the primary inhibitory action of these compounds may affect synthesis of proteins as well as RNA. The present results confirm that cordycepin blocks the steroid-mediated induction of TAT in rat hepatoma cells (HTC), but unlike actinomycin-D, cordycepin neither increases nor maintains the levels of TAT found in HTC cells preinduced with dexamethasone. Indeed, cordycepin added to preinduced cells, either in the presence or absence of steroid, causes a prompt decline in TAT activity. These data also confirm that both actinomycin-D and cordycepin have an early inhibitory effect on protein synthesis, but the cordycepin effect is observed sooner and the extent of inhibition is greater. When actinomycin-D and cordycepin are added simultaneously to preinduced cells with the steroid removed, the actinomycin-td produced maintenance of preinduced levels of TAT persists. Also, the inhibition of protein synthesis in cultures with both inhibitors approaches that for the cells treated with actinomycin-D alone instead of cordycepin alone. These data suggest that cordycepin inhibits TAT synthesis in preinduced cells by its inhibition of protein synthesis, and this inhibitory effect of cordycepin is blocked by actinomycin-D. It is possible that actinomycin-D does this by preventing the incorporation of cordycepin into RNA. However, regardless of the correctness of this speculation, the multiple effects of cordycepin indicate that this inhibitor cannot be used either to prove or rule out the post-transcriptional model for regulation of gene expression. Also, this requirement that protein synthesis must continue in order to maintain pre-induced levels of TAT is inconsistent with the assumption that the maintenance of these induced TAT levels by actinomycin-D is due to inhibition of TAT degradation.

"Superinduction" of tyrosine aminotransferase by actinomycin D: a reevaluation

Reexamination of the effects of actinomycin D (AMD) on the intracellular level and rate of synthesis of tyrosine aminotransferase (TAT) in hepatoma tissue culture (HTC) cells reveals that much apparent controversy can be resolved with acknowledgment of the multi-faceted nature of this inhibitor's action. AMD can slow overall protein synthesis and inhibit the degradation of both TAT and its mRNA as well as block the synthesis of RNA. The extent of these secondary actions of the inhibitor depend somewhat upon the growth condition of the cells. The effects of cordycepin (3'-deoxyadenosine) on the metabolism of TAT and its mRNA are also complex, but differ in several respects from those of AMD.

Rapid loss of translatable messenger RNA of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase during glucose repression in liver

The rate of synthesis of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (EC 4.1.1.32) in rat liver decreased with a half-life of 30 min after fasted rats were refed either a chow diet or glucose. A requirement for both glucose and insulin to bring about this rapid deinduction was shown, as well as the ability of dibutyryl adenosine 3':5'-cyclic monophosphate to block the decrease in enzyme synthesis. Estimates of the stability of messenger RNA of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase were made by using the inhibitors actinomycin D and cordycepin to block further messenger RNA synthesis, and then measuring the decrease in specific enzyme synthesis. It is suggested that the use of actinomycin D yields an overestimation of the template stability. The results with cordycepin imply that the enzyme messenger RNA has a short half-life of approximately 1 hr. Thus, it is possible that deinduction may proceed by way of a decrease in messenger RNA production, leading to a rapid fall in the synthesis of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase.