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Phan P, Deshwal A, McMahon TA, Slikas M, Andrews E, Becker B, Kumar TKS. A Review of Rattlesnake Venoms. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 16:2. [PMID: 38276526 PMCID: PMC10818703 DOI: 10.3390/toxins16010002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2023] [Revised: 12/08/2023] [Accepted: 12/12/2023] [Indexed: 01/27/2024] Open
Abstract
Venom components are invaluable in biomedical research owing to their specificity and potency. Many of these components exist in two genera of rattlesnakes, Crotalus and Sistrurus, with high toxicity and proteolytic activity variation. This review focuses on venom components within rattlesnakes, and offers a comparison and itemized list of factors dictating venom composition, as well as presenting their known characteristics, activities, and significant applications in biosciences. There are 64 families and subfamilies of proteins present in Crotalus and Sistrurus venom. Snake venom serine proteases (SVSP), snake venom metalloproteases (SVMP), and phospholipases A2 (PLA2) are the standard components in Crotalus and Sistrurus venom. Through this review, we highlight gaps in the knowledge of rattlesnake venom; there needs to be more information on the venom composition of three Crotalus species and one Sistrurus subspecies. We discuss the activity and importance of both major and minor components in biomedical research and drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Phuc Phan
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR 72701, USA;
| | - Anant Deshwal
- Department of Biology, Bradley University, Peoria, IL 61625, USA; (T.A.M.); (M.S.); (E.A.)
| | - Tyler Anthony McMahon
- Department of Biology, Bradley University, Peoria, IL 61625, USA; (T.A.M.); (M.S.); (E.A.)
| | - Matthew Slikas
- Department of Biology, Bradley University, Peoria, IL 61625, USA; (T.A.M.); (M.S.); (E.A.)
| | - Elodie Andrews
- Department of Biology, Bradley University, Peoria, IL 61625, USA; (T.A.M.); (M.S.); (E.A.)
| | - Brian Becker
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR 72701, USA;
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Smith CF, Nikolakis ZL, Perry BW, Schield DR, Meik JM, Saviola AJ, Castoe TA, Parker J, Mackessy SP. The best of both worlds? Rattlesnake hybrid zones generate complex combinations of divergent venom phenotypes that retain high toxicity. Biochimie 2023; 213:176-189. [PMID: 37451532 DOI: 10.1016/j.biochi.2023.07.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2023] [Revised: 06/27/2023] [Accepted: 07/10/2023] [Indexed: 07/18/2023]
Abstract
Studying the consequences of hybridization between closely related species with divergent traits can reveal patterns of evolution that shape and maintain extreme trophic adaptations. Snake venoms are an excellent model system for examining the evolutionary and ecological patterns that underlie highly selected polymorphic traits. Here we investigate hybrid venom phenotypes that result from natural introgression between two rattlesnake species that express highly divergent venom phenotypes: Crotalus o. concolor and C. v. viridis. Though not yet documented, interbreeding between these species may lead to novel venom phenotypes with unique activities that break the typical trends of venom composition in rattlesnakes. The characteristics of these unusual phenotypes could unveil the roles of introgression in maintaining patterns of venom composition and variation, including the near ubiquitous dichotomy between neurotoxic or degradative venoms observed across rattlesnakes. We use RADseq data to infer patterns of gene flow and hybrid ancestry between these diverged lineages and link these genetic data with analyses of venom composition, biological activity, and whole animal model toxicity tests to understand the impacts of introgression on venom composition. We find that introgressed populations express admixed venom phenotypes that do not sacrifice biological activity (lethal toxicity) or overall abundance of dominant toxins compared to parental venoms. These hybridized venoms therefore do not represent a trade-off in functionality between the typical phenotypic extremes but instead represent a unique combination of characters whose expression appears limited to the hybrid zone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cara F Smith
- School of Biological Sciences, 501 20th Street, University of Northern Colorado, Greeley, CO, 80639, USA
| | - Zachary L Nikolakis
- Department of Biology, 501 S. Nedderman Drive, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX, 76019, USA
| | - Blair W Perry
- Department of Biology, 501 S. Nedderman Drive, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX, 76019, USA
| | - Drew R Schield
- Department of Biology, 501 S. Nedderman Drive, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX, 76019, USA
| | - Jesse M Meik
- Department of Biological Sciences, Tarleton State University, 1333 W. Washington Street, Stephenville, TX, 76402, USA
| | - Anthony J Saviola
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, 12801 East 17th Avenue, University of Colorado Denver, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA
| | - Todd A Castoe
- Department of Biology, 501 S. Nedderman Drive, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX, 76019, USA
| | - Joshua Parker
- Fresno City College, 1101 E. University Avenue, Fresno, CA, 93741, USA
| | - Stephen P Mackessy
- School of Biological Sciences, 501 20th Street, University of Northern Colorado, Greeley, CO, 80639, USA.
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3
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Severe, persistent thrombocytopenia in Crotalus horridus envenomation despite antivenom: A retrospective review. Toxicon 2023; 224:107029. [PMID: 36682501 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2023.107029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2022] [Revised: 01/10/2023] [Accepted: 01/12/2023] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND In the late nineties, Bond and Burkhardt described a severe thrombocytopenic phenomenon from envenomation by Crotalus horridus. This thrombocytopenia persisted despite administration of platelets and antivenom. Questions remain regarding the clinical significance and time to resolution of this thrombocytopenia. In addition, as new antivenoms are available in North America, the response to current treatment is not well reported. The purpose of this study is to provide further insight into the approach to treatment of Crotalus horridus envenomation. METHODS This is a retrospective chart review of 21 cases of presumed envenomation by C. horridus. Data collected included age, sex, antivenom administration, laboratory data, length of hospital stay, blood products administered, and general clinical course. We also evaluated platelet response to antivenom, bleeding outcomes, and complications from envenomation. RESULTS Patients' ages ranged from 19 to 71 years. All patients were men. Most patients presented with thrombocytopenia and all had limb swelling. Patients responded initially to antivenom treatment, however subsequently developed a profound thrombocytopenia, including fourteen with platelet counts less than 20 × 109/L. Abnormalities in thromboelastography (TEG) were noted in conjunction with thrombocytopenia. Patients displayed persistent thrombocytopenia despite administration of Crotalidae polyvalent immune Fab or Crotalidae immune F(ab')2. Median time to rebound platelet count greater than 20 × 109/L was ten days (range 6-12 days) from envenomation. Complications included a partial finger amputation in one patient, bleeding gums in four patients, bloody stools in two patients, bloody nasogastric output in one patient. No patients required red blood cell transfusion and no deaths occurred. CONCLUSION Practitioners treating C. horridus should recognize the possibility of severe thrombocytopenia and its persistence despite antivenom. They should counsel patients on appropriate abstention from activities that could lead to trauma, as well as the importance of follow up for repeat laboratory studies to ensure the resolution of thrombocytopenia.
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Smelski G, Cardwell M, Larsen J. Neurotoxic respiratory failure absent following Arizona rattlesnake bites. Toxicon 2023; 224:107034. [PMID: 36690088 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2023.107034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2022] [Revised: 01/15/2023] [Accepted: 01/19/2023] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Warnings of neurotoxic respiratory paralysis following envenomation by rattlesnakes (Crotalus sp.) have been included in numerous scholarly publications over the past 60 years, resulting in fear and anxiety in the public and among clinicians. We examine the validity of the widespread belief that rattlesnakes in the arid southwestern United States, and particularly the Mohave Rattlesnake (Crotalus scutulatus), pose a significant risk of medically relevant respiratory weakness and paralysis in humans. A retrospective review of 3440 suspected rattlesnake bites reported to the Arizona Poison and Drug Information Center between 1999 and 2020 produced no evidence of respiratory weakness in a region with three species known to express significant amounts of neurotoxin in their venoms: Crotalus concolor, C. tigris, and the more widely distributed C. scutulatus. A literature review produced numerous warnings regarding respiratory paralysis following envenomation by rattlesnakes in our region that either lacked references or cited sources that did not contain strong supportive data. We found no case reports of neurotoxic respiratory weakness following Arizona rattlesnake bites in the literature and such reports in surrounding states were scant. We conclude that neurotoxic respiratory failure in this region following rattlesnake envenomation is extraordinarily rare. All rattlesnake bites should receive the same consideration and critical care, and warnings about significant risk of respiratory failure are unwarranted, regardless of species involved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Geoffrey Smelski
- Arizona Poison and Drug Information Center, 1295 N Martin Ave., Tucson, AZ, USA.
| | - Michael Cardwell
- Arizona Poison and Drug Information Center, 1295 N Martin Ave., Tucson, AZ, USA; Department of Biology, San Diego State University, 5500 Campanile Dr., San Diego, CA, USA.
| | - Jaiva Larsen
- Arizona Poison and Drug Information Center, 1295 N Martin Ave., Tucson, AZ, USA; Department of Emergency Medicine, University of Arizona College of Medicine, 1501 N Campbell Ave., Tucson, AZ, USA.
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Gómez A, Solano G, Chang-Castillo A, Chacón D, Corrales G, Segura Á, Estrada R, León G. Intraspecific variability of the Central American rattlesnake (Crotalus simus) venom and its usefulness to obtain a representative standard venom. Toxicon 2021; 202:20-26. [PMID: 34562491 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2021.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2021] [Revised: 09/18/2021] [Accepted: 09/20/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Snake venoms are mixtures of proteins whose physicochemical features confer them toxicity and immunogenicity. Animals (e.g., horses or sheep) immunized with snake venoms produce antibodies towards the venom proteins. Since these antibodies can neutralize the venom toxicity, they have been used to formulate snake antivenoms. The efficacy of the antivenoms is widely accepted, and standard venoms are expected to be representative of the snake's population that inhabit in the region where the antivenom is intended to be used. The representativeness of a single venom collected from a Crotalus simus snake, and its usefulness as standard venom to produce an antivenom is evaluated. The use of an "average venom" might be as representative of the population intended to be used, as the standard venom composed by many venom samples. Variations in the relative abundance concentration of crotoxin in the C. simus leads to different clinical manifestations, as well as differences in the neutralization efficacy of the antivenoms. A monovalent anti-Cs antivenom was produced from a single venom C. simus specimen, and its efficacy in neutralizing the lethal activity of 30 C. simus snakes was tested. Despite the variations in the relative abundance content of crotoxin found in the proteomes, the monovalent anti-Cs antivenom was successful in neutralize the toxicity caused by the variations on the venom composition of three different snake population used. Interestingly, it seems that the sex is not a key factor in the lethality of the venoms tested. The concept of representative venom mixtures for immunization should be revised for the case of C. simus on the populations found in Costa Rica, since it might use as less as one representative individual whose venom covers the mainly toxic enzymes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aarón Gómez
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica.
| | - Gabriela Solano
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Arturo Chang-Castillo
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Danilo Chacón
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Greivin Corrales
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Álvaro Segura
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Ricardo Estrada
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Guillermo León
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
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Colis-Torres A, Neri-Castro E, Strickland JL, Olvera-Rodríguez A, Borja M, Calvete J, Jones J, Parkinson CL, Bañuelos J, López de León J, Alagón A. Intraspecific venom variation of Mexican West Coast Rattlesnakes (Crotalus basiliscus) and its implications for antivenom production. Biochimie 2021; 192:111-124. [PMID: 34656669 DOI: 10.1016/j.biochi.2021.10.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2021] [Revised: 09/17/2021] [Accepted: 10/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Intraspecific variation in snake venoms has been widely documented worldwide. However, there are few studies on this subject in Mexico. Venom characterization studies provide important data used to predict clinical syndromes, to evaluate the efficacy of antivenoms and, in some cases, to improve immunogenic mixtures in the production of antivenoms. In the present work, we evaluated the intraspecific venom variation of Crotalus basiliscus, a rattlesnake of medical importance and whose venom is used in the immunization of horses to produce one of the Mexican antivenoms. Our results demonstrate that there is variation in biological and biochemical activities among adult venoms and that there is an ontogenetic change from juvenile to adult venoms. Juvenile venoms were more lethal and had higher percentages of crotamine and crotoxin, while adult venoms had higher percentages of snake venom metalloproteases (SVMPs). Additionally, we documented crotoxin-like PLA2 variation in which specimens from Zacatecas, Sinaloa and Michoacán (except 1) lacked the neurotoxin, while the rest of the venoms had it. Finally, we evaluated the efficacy of three lots of Birmex antivenom and all three were able to neutralize the lethality of four representative venoms but were not able to neutralize crotamine. We also observed significant differences in the LD50 values neutralized per vial among the different lots. Based on these results, we recommend including venoms containing crotamine in the production of antivenom for a better immunogenic mixture and to improve the homogeneity of lots.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Colis-Torres
- Departamento de Medicina Molecular y Bioprocesos, Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico
| | - Edgar Neri-Castro
- Departamento de Medicina Molecular y Bioprocesos, Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico
| | - Jason L Strickland
- Department of Biology, University of South Alabama, 5871 USA Dr. N, Mobile, AL, 36688, USA
| | - Alejandro Olvera-Rodríguez
- Departamento de Medicina Molecular y Bioprocesos, Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico
| | - Miguel Borja
- Facultad Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Juárez del Estado de Durango, Av. Universidad s/n. Fracc. Filadelfia, C.P. 35010, Gómez Palacio, Dgo, Mexico
| | - Juan Calvete
- Laboratorio de Venómica Evolutiva y Traslacional, Instituto de Biomedicina de Valencia, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Jaime Roig 11, 46010, Valencia, Spain
| | - Jason Jones
- Herp.mx A.C, Villa del Álvarez, Colima, Mexico
| | - Christopher L Parkinson
- Department of Biological Sciences and Department of Forestry, and Environmental Conservation, Clemson University, 190 Collings St. Clemson, SC, 29631, USA
| | - Jorge Bañuelos
- Herp.mx A.C, Villa del Álvarez, Colima, Mexico; Unidad Académica de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Zacatecas, Edificio de Biología Campus II Ave. Preparatoria S/N, Col. Agronómica, 98066, ZacatecasZacatecas, Mexico
| | - Jorge López de León
- Hospital General Norberto Treviño Zapata, Ciudad Victoria, Tamaulipas, Mexico
| | - Alejandro Alagón
- Departamento de Medicina Molecular y Bioprocesos, Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico.
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7
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Seneci L, Zdenek CN, Bourke LA, Cochran C, Sánchez EE, Neri-Castro E, Bénard-Valle M, Alagón A, Frank N, Fry BG. A symphony of destruction: Dynamic differential fibrinogenolytic toxicity by rattlesnake (Crotalus and Sistrurus) venoms. Comp Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol 2021; 245:109034. [PMID: 33766656 PMCID: PMC8162888 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpc.2021.109034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2021] [Revised: 03/02/2021] [Accepted: 03/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
What factors influence the evolution of a heavily selected functional trait in a diverse clade? This study adopts rattlesnakes as a model group to investigate the evolutionary history of venom coagulotoxicity in the wider context of phylogenetics, natural history, and biology. Venom-induced clotting of human plasma and fibrinogen was determined and mapped onto the rattlesnake phylogenetic tree to reconstruct the evolution of coagulotoxicity across the group. Our results indicate that venom phenotype is often independent of phylogenetic relationships in rattlesnakes, suggesting the importance of diet and/or other environmental variables in driving venom evolution. Moreover, the striking inter- and intraspecific variability in venom activity on human blood highlights the considerable variability faced by physicians treating envenomation. This study is the most comprehensive effort to date to describe and characterize the evolutionary and biological aspects of coagulotoxins in rattlesnake venom. Further research at finer taxonomic levels is recommended to elucidate patterns of variation within species and lineages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lorenzo Seneci
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia; Institute of Biology Leiden (IBL), Leiden University, 2333 BE Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Christina N Zdenek
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Lachlan A Bourke
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Chip Cochran
- Department of Earth and Biological Sciences, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA 92350, USA
| | - Elda E Sánchez
- National Natural Toxins Research Center (NNTRC), Department of Chemistry, Texas A&M University-Kingsville, MSC 224, 975 West Avenue B, Kingsville, TX 78363, USA
| | - Edgar Neri-Castro
- Departamento de Medicina Molecular y Bioprocesos, Instituto de Biotecnologa, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Av. Universidad 2001, Cuernavaca, Morelos 62210, Mexico
| | - Melisa Bénard-Valle
- Departamento de Medicina Molecular y Bioprocesos, Instituto de Biotecnologa, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Av. Universidad 2001, Cuernavaca, Morelos 62210, Mexico
| | - Alejandro Alagón
- Departamento de Medicina Molecular y Bioprocesos, Instituto de Biotecnologa, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Av. Universidad 2001, Cuernavaca, Morelos 62210, Mexico
| | | | - Bryan G Fry
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
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Calvete JJ, Lomonte B, Saviola AJ, Bonilla F, Sasa M, Williams DJ, Undheim EA, Sunagar K, Jackson TN. Mutual enlightenment: A toolbox of concepts and methods for integrating evolutionary and clinical toxinology via snake venomics and the contextual stance. Toxicon X 2021; 9-10:100070. [PMID: 34195606 PMCID: PMC8234350 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxcx.2021.100070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2021] [Revised: 06/01/2021] [Accepted: 06/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Snakebite envenoming is a neglected tropical disease that may claim over 100,000 human lives annually worldwide. Snakebite occurs as the result of an interaction between a human and a snake that elicits either a defensive response from the snake or, more rarely, a feeding response as the result of mistaken identity. Snakebite envenoming is therefore a biological and, more specifically, an ecological problem. Snake venom itself is often described as a "cocktail", as it is a heterogenous mixture of molecules including the toxins (which are typically proteinaceous) responsible for the pathophysiological consequences of envenoming. The primary function of venom in snake ecology is pre-subjugation, with defensive deployment of the secretion typically considered a secondary function. The particular composition of any given venom cocktail is shaped by evolutionary forces that include phylogenetic constraints associated with the snake's lineage and adaptive responses to the snake's ecological context, including the taxa it preys upon and by which it is predated upon. In the present article, we describe how conceptual frameworks from ecology and evolutionary biology can enter into a mutually enlightening relationship with clinical toxinology by enabling the consideration of snakebite envenoming from an "ecological stance". We detail the insights that may emerge from such a perspective and highlight the ways in which the high-fidelity descriptive knowledge emerging from applications of -omics era technologies - "venomics" and "antivenomics" - can combine with evolutionary explanations to deliver a detailed understanding of this multifactorial health crisis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan J. Calvete
- Evolutionary and Translational Venomics Laboratory, Instituto de Biomedicina de Valencia, CSIC, Valencia, Spain
| | - Bruno Lomonte
- Unidad de Proteómica, Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Anthony J. Saviola
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - Fabián Bonilla
- Laboratorio de Investigación en Animales Peligrosos (LIAP), Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Mahmood Sasa
- Laboratorio de Investigación en Animales Peligrosos (LIAP), Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
- Museo de Zoología, Centro de Investigaciones en Biodiversidad y Ecología Tropical, Universidad de Costa Rica, Costa Rica
| | | | - Eivind A.B. Undheim
- Centre for Biodiversity Dynamics, Department of Biology, NTNU, Trondheim, Norway
- Centre for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis, Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Kartik Sunagar
- Evolutionary Venomics Lab, Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, Karnataka, India
| | - Timothy N.W. Jackson
- Australian Venom Research Unit, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
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Deshwal A, Phan P, Datta J, Kannan R, Thallapuranam SK. A Meta-Analysis of the Protein Components in Rattlesnake Venom. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13060372. [PMID: 34071038 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13060372] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2021] [Revised: 05/20/2021] [Accepted: 05/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The specificity and potency of venom components give them a unique advantage in developing various pharmaceutical drugs. Though venom is a cocktail of proteins, rarely are the synergy and association between various venom components studied. Understanding the relationship between various components of venom is critical in medical research. Using meta-analysis, we observed underlying patterns and associations in the appearance of the toxin families. For Crotalus, Dis has the most associations with the following toxins: PDE; BPP; CRL; CRiSP; LAAO; SVMP P-I and LAAO; SVMP P-III and LAAO. In Sistrurus venom, CTL and NGF have the most associations. These associations can predict the presence of proteins in novel venom and understand synergies between venom components for enhanced bioactivity. Using this approach, the need to revisit the classification of proteins as major components or minor components is highlighted. The revised classification of venom components is based on ubiquity, bioactivity, the number of associations, and synergies. The revised classification can be expected to trigger increased research on venom components, such as NGF, which have high biomedical significance. Using hierarchical clustering, we observed that the genera's venom compositions were similar, based on functional characteristics rather than phylogenetic relationships.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anant Deshwal
- Division of Biology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA
| | - Phuc Phan
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR 72701, USA
| | - Jyotishka Datta
- Department of Statistics, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA
| | - Ragupathy Kannan
- Department of Biology, University of Arkansas-Fort Smith, Fort Smith, AR 72913, USA
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10
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Widespread and Differential Neurotoxicity in Venoms from the Bitis Genus of Viperid Snakes. Neurotox Res 2021; 39:697-704. [PMID: 33428181 DOI: 10.1007/s12640-021-00330-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2020] [Revised: 01/02/2021] [Accepted: 01/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Research into the neurotoxic activity of venoms from species within the snake family Viperidae is relatively neglected compared with snakes in the Elapidae family. Previous studies into venoms from the Bitis genus of vipers have identified the presence of presynaptic phospholipase A2 neurotoxins in B. atropos and B. caudalis, as well as a postsynaptic phospholipase A2 in B. arietans. Yet, no studies have investigated how widespread neurotoxicity is across the Bitis genus or if they exhibit prey selectivity of their neurotoxins. Utilising a biolayer interferometry assay, we were able to assess the binding of crude venom from 14 species of Bitis to the neuromuscular α-1 nAChR orthosteric site across a wide range of vertebrate taxa mimotopes. Postsynaptic binding was seen for venoms from B. arietans, B. armata, B. atropos, B. caudalis, B. cornuta, B. peringueyi and B. rubida. To further explore the types of neurotoxins present, venoms from the representatives B. armata, B. caudalis, B. cornuta and B. rubida were additionally tested in the chick biventer cervicis nerve muscle preparation, which showed presynaptic and postsynaptic activity for B. caudalis and only presynaptic neurotoxicity for B. cornuta and B. rubida, with myotoxicity also evident for some species. These results, combined with the biolayer interferometry results, indicate complex neurotoxicity exerted by Bitis species, which varies dramatically by lineage tested upon. Our data also further support the importance of sampling across geographical localities, as significant intraspecific variation of postsynaptic neurotoxicity was reported across the different localities.
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11
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Abd El-Aziz TM, Soares AG, Stockand JD. Advances in venomics: Modern separation techniques and mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2020; 1160:122352. [PMID: 32971366 PMCID: PMC8174749 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2020.122352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2020] [Revised: 08/25/2020] [Accepted: 08/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Snake venoms are complex chemical mixtures of biologically active proteins and non-protein components. Toxins have a wide range of targets and effects to include ion channels and membrane receptors, and platelet aggregation and platelet plug formation. Toxins target these effectors and effects at high affinity and selectivity. From a pharmacological perspective, snake venom compounds are a valuable resource for drug discovery and development. However, a major challenge to drug discovery using snake venoms is isolating and analyzing the bioactive proteins and peptides in these complex mixtures. Getting molecular information from complex mixtures such as snake venoms requires proteomic analyses, generally combined with transcriptomic analyses of venom glands. The present review summarizes current knowledge and highlights important recent advances in venomics with special emphasis on contemporary separation techniques and bioinformatics that have begun to elaborate the complexity of snake venoms. Several analytical techniques such as two-dimensional gel electrophoresis, RP-HPLC, size exclusion chromatography, ion exchange chromatography, MALDI-TOF-MS, and LC-ESI-QTOF-MS have been employed in this regard. The improvement of separation approaches such as multidimensional-HPLC, 2D-electrophoresis coupled to soft-ionization (MALDI and ESI) mass spectrometry has been critical to obtain an accurate picture of the startling complexity of venoms. In the case of bioinformatics, a variety of software tools such as PEAKS also has been used successfully. Such information gleaned from venomics is important to both predicting and resolving the biological activity of the active components of venoms, which in turn is key for the development of new drugs based on these venom components.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tarek Mohamed Abd El-Aziz
- Department of Cellular and Integrative Physiology, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas 78229-3900, USA; Zoology Department, Faculty of Science, Minia University, El-Minia 61519, Egypt.
| | - Antonio G Soares
- Department of Cellular and Integrative Physiology, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas 78229-3900, USA
| | - James D Stockand
- Department of Cellular and Integrative Physiology, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas 78229-3900, USA
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12
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Ponce-López R, Neri-Castro E, Borja M, Strickland JL, Alagón A. Neutralizing potency and immunochemical evaluation of an anti-Crotalus mictlantecuhtli experimental serum. Toxicon 2020; 187:171-180. [PMID: 32891663 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2020.08.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2020] [Revised: 08/10/2020] [Accepted: 08/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Snakebite in Mexico is commonly treated with an antivenom which uses Bothrops asper and Crotalus simus venoms as immunogens. Current taxonomic recommendations for the C. simus species complex suggest a novel endemic species from Mexico: Crotalus mictlantecuhtli. The aim of this report was to evaluate the immunogenic properties of C. mictlantecuhtli venom and its potential to generate polyclonal antibodies capable of neutralizing other pitviper venoms. We generated an experimental anti-Crotalus mictlantecuhtli serum, using the rabbit model, to test recognition and neutralizing capacity against the homologous venom as well as venoms from C. atrox, C.basiliscus, C. durissus terrificus, C. scutulatus salvini, C. tzabcan and Ophryacus sphenophrys. Pre-incubation neutralization experiments using our experimental serum showed positive results against venoms containing crotoxin, while venoms from two non-neurotoxic pit-vipers were not neutralized. Rescue experiments in mice showed that, when intravenously injected (i.v.), C. mictlantecuhtli venom is not neutralized by a maximum dose of Antivipmyn® and the experimental serum after 5 min of envenomation, albeit mice envenomated intraperitoneally (i.p.) and rescued i.v. with Antivipmyn® survived even at 50 min after envenomation. Our results highlight the importance of using the highly neurotoxic C. mictlantecuhtli venom to increase antivenom effectiveness against Mexican neurotoxic pitvipers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberto Ponce-López
- Departamento de Medicina Molecular y Bioprocesos, Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Av. Universidad 2001, Colonia Chamilpa, Cuernavaca, Morelos, C.P. 62210, Mexico
| | - Edgar Neri-Castro
- Departamento de Medicina Molecular y Bioprocesos, Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Av. Universidad 2001, Colonia Chamilpa, Cuernavaca, Morelos, C.P. 62210, Mexico
| | - Miguel Borja
- Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Juárez del Estado de Durango, Av. Universidad s/n. Fracc. Filadelfia, C.P. 35010 Gómez Palacio, Durango, Mexico
| | - Jason L Strickland
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, 190 Collings St, Clemson, SC, 29631, USA
| | - Alejandro Alagón
- Departamento de Medicina Molecular y Bioprocesos, Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Av. Universidad 2001, Colonia Chamilpa, Cuernavaca, Morelos, C.P. 62210, Mexico.
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13
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Neri-Castro E, Sanz L, Olvera-Rodríguez A, Bénard-Valle M, Alagón A, Calvete JJ. Venomics and biochemical analysis of the black-tailed horned pitviper, Mixcoatlus melanurus, and characterization of Melanurutoxin, a novel crotoxin homolog. J Proteomics 2020; 225:103865. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2020.103865] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2020] [Revised: 05/28/2020] [Accepted: 06/03/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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14
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Sánchez M, Solano G, Vargas M, Reta-Mares F, Neri-Castro É, Alagón A, Sánchez A, Villalta M, León G, Segura Á. Toxicological profile of medically relevant Crotalus species from Mexico and their neutralization by a Crotalus basiliscus/Bothrops asper antivenom. Toxicon 2020; 179:92-100. [PMID: 32345455 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2020.03.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2020] [Revised: 03/13/2020] [Accepted: 03/15/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Specimens of the Crotalus genus represent a potential snakebite problem in Mexico, and despite the great number of species of Crotalus present in this country, only a few of them are relevant from a medical point of view. Crotalus envenomed patients can present a range of signs and symptoms, depending on the species involved, and their treatment is indistinctly with either of the anti-viperid antivenoms available in the Mexican Public Health System. One of these antivenoms is produced by immunization of horses with a mixture of only two venoms: Crotalus basiliscus and Bothrops asper venoms. In light of the high variability found in Crotalus species venom composition, it is important to demonstrate the cross-neutralization of this antivenom against other Crotalus species. Therefore, in this work the toxic variability of eight medically important Crotalus venoms from Mexico and its neutralization by the Crotalus basiliscus/Bothrops asper antivenom were assessed. The present study evidenced the variability of toxic and enzymatic activities among the following Crotalus venoms: (1) Crotalus atrox, (2) Crotalus basiliscus, (3) Crotalus culminatus, (4) Crotalus simus, (5) Crotalus tzabcan, (6) Crotalus scutulatus salvini, (7) Crotalus scutulatus scutulatus-A, and (8) Crotalus scutulatus scutulatus-B. All venoms studied possess lethal and hemorrhagic activity on a murine model, although there are important variations among the species; in contrast, the PLA2 activity was similar for all venoms. Interestingly, only C. simus venom exhibited coagulant activity on human plasma under 100 μg. The antivenom neutralized the lethality and all the other assessed activities for all venoms tested. However, the dose required varied depending on the venom and the evaluated activity. Our preclinical data support the recommendation of using this antivenom to clinically manage Crotalus snakebites produced by the species assessed in this study. Nonetheless, only clinical trials could categorically validate these results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melvin Sánchez
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Gabriela Solano
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Mariángela Vargas
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Francisco Reta-Mares
- Laboratorios de Biológicos y Reactivos de México S.A. de C.V. (BIRMEX), México DF, Mexico
| | - Édgar Neri-Castro
- Departamento de Medicina Molecular y Bioprocesos Del Instituto de Biotecnología de La Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico
| | - Alejandro Alagón
- Departamento de Medicina Molecular y Bioprocesos Del Instituto de Biotecnología de La Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico
| | - Andrés Sánchez
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Mauren Villalta
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Guillermo León
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Álvaro Segura
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica.
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Zancolli G, Calvete JJ, Cardwell MD, Greene HW, Hayes WK, Hegarty MJ, Herrmann HW, Holycross AT, Lannutti DI, Mulley JF, Sanz L, Travis ZD, Whorley JR, Wüster CE, Wüster W. When one phenotype is not enough: divergent evolutionary trajectories govern venom variation in a widespread rattlesnake species. Proc Biol Sci 2020; 286:20182735. [PMID: 30862287 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2018.2735] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Understanding the origin and maintenance of phenotypic variation, particularly across a continuous spatial distribution, represents a key challenge in evolutionary biology. For this, animal venoms represent ideal study systems: they are complex, variable, yet easily quantifiable molecular phenotypes with a clear function. Rattlesnakes display tremendous variation in their venom composition, mostly through strongly dichotomous venom strategies, which may even coexist within a single species. Here, through dense, widespread population-level sampling of the Mojave rattlesnake, Crotalus scutulatus, we show that genomic structural variation at multiple loci underlies extreme geographical variation in venom composition, which is maintained despite extensive gene flow. Unexpectedly, neither diet composition nor neutral population structure explain venom variation. Instead, venom divergence is strongly correlated with environmental conditions. Individual toxin genes correlate with distinct environmental factors, suggesting that different selective pressures can act on individual loci independently of their co-expression patterns or genomic proximity. Our results challenge common assumptions about diet composition as the key selective driver of snake venom evolution and emphasize how the interplay between genomic architecture and local-scale spatial heterogeneity in selective pressures may facilitate the retention of adaptive functional polymorphisms across a continuous space.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giulia Zancolli
- 1 Molecular Ecology and Fisheries Genetics Laboratory, School of Natural Sciences, Bangor University , Bangor LL57 2UW , UK
| | - Juan J Calvete
- 2 Evolutionary and Translational Venomics Laboratory, CSIC , Jaume Roig 11, Valencia 46010 , Spain
| | - Michael D Cardwell
- 3 Department of Biology, San Diego State University , San Diego, CA 92182 , USA
| | - Harry W Greene
- 4 Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Cornell University , Corson Hall, Ithaca, NY 14853 , USA
| | - William K Hayes
- 5 Department of Earth and Biological Sciences, School of Medicine, Loma Linda University , Loma Linda, CA 92350 , USA
| | - Matthew J Hegarty
- 6 Institute of Biological, Environmental and Rural Sciences, Aberystwyth University , Aberystwyth SY23 3EE , UK
| | - Hans-Werner Herrmann
- 7 Wildlife Conservation and Management, School of Natural Resources and the Environment, University of Arizona , 1064 East Lowell Street (ENR2), Tucson, AZ 85721 , USA
| | - Andrew T Holycross
- 8 Natural History Collections, Arizona State University , 734 W. Alameda Drive, Tempe, AZ 85282 , USA
| | - Dominic I Lannutti
- 9 Department of Biological Sciences, University of Texas at El Paso , 500 W. University, El Paso, TX 79968 , USA
| | - John F Mulley
- 1 Molecular Ecology and Fisheries Genetics Laboratory, School of Natural Sciences, Bangor University , Bangor LL57 2UW , UK
| | - Libia Sanz
- 2 Evolutionary and Translational Venomics Laboratory, CSIC , Jaume Roig 11, Valencia 46010 , Spain
| | - Zachary D Travis
- 5 Department of Earth and Biological Sciences, School of Medicine, Loma Linda University , Loma Linda, CA 92350 , USA
| | - Joshua R Whorley
- 10 Seattle Central College, Science, Technology, Engineering & Mathematics Division , 1701 Broadway Ave. E., Seattle, WA 98122 , USA
| | - Catharine E Wüster
- 1 Molecular Ecology and Fisheries Genetics Laboratory, School of Natural Sciences, Bangor University , Bangor LL57 2UW , UK
| | - Wolfgang Wüster
- 1 Molecular Ecology and Fisheries Genetics Laboratory, School of Natural Sciences, Bangor University , Bangor LL57 2UW , UK
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Mason AJ, Margres MJ, Strickland JL, Rokyta DR, Sasa M, Parkinson CL. Trait differentiation and modular toxin expression in palm-pitvipers. BMC Genomics 2020; 21:147. [PMID: 32046632 PMCID: PMC7014597 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-020-6545-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2019] [Accepted: 01/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Modularity is the tendency for systems to organize into semi-independent units and can be a key to the evolution and diversification of complex biological systems. Snake venoms are highly variable modular systems that exhibit extreme diversification even across very short time scales. One well-studied venom phenotype dichotomy is a trade-off between neurotoxicity versus hemotoxicity that occurs through the high expression of a heterodimeric neurotoxic phospholipase A2 (PLA2) or snake venom metalloproteinases (SVMPs). We tested whether the variation in these venom phenotypes could occur via variation in regulatory sub-modules through comparative venom gland transcriptomics of representative Black-Speckled Palm-Pitvipers (Bothriechis nigroviridis) and Talamancan Palm-Pitvipers (B. nubestris). Results We assembled 1517 coding sequences, including 43 toxins for B. nigroviridis and 1787 coding sequences including 42 toxins for B. nubestris. The venom gland transcriptomes were extremely divergent between these two species with one B. nigroviridis exhibiting a primarily neurotoxic pattern of expression, both B. nubestris expressing primarily hemorrhagic toxins, and a second B. nigroviridis exhibiting a mixed expression phenotype. Weighted gene coexpression analyses identified six submodules of transcript expression variation, one of which was highly associated with SVMPs and a second which contained both subunits of the neurotoxic PLA2 complex. The sub-module association of these toxins suggest common regulatory pathways underlie the variation in their expression and is consistent with known patterns of inheritance of similar haplotypes in other species. We also find evidence that module associated toxin families show fewer gene duplications and transcript losses between species, but module association did not appear to affect sequence diversification. Conclusion Sub-modular regulation of expression likely contributes to the diversification of venom phenotypes within and among species and underscores the role of modularity in facilitating rapid evolution of complex traits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew J Mason
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, 190 Collings St., Clemson, SC, 29634, USA
| | - Mark J Margres
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, 190 Collings St., Clemson, SC, 29634, USA
| | - Jason L Strickland
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, 190 Collings St., Clemson, SC, 29634, USA
| | - Darin R Rokyta
- Department of Biological Sciences, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, 24105, USA
| | - Mahmood Sasa
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiologia, Universidad de Costa Rica, San Jose, Costa Rica
| | - Christopher L Parkinson
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, 190 Collings St., Clemson, SC, 29634, USA. .,Department of Forestry, and Environmental Conservation, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA.
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17
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Román-Domínguez L, Neri-Castro E, Vázquez López H, García-Osorio B, Archundia IG, Ortiz-Medina JA, Petricevich VL, Alagón A, Bénard-Valle M. Biochemical and immunochemical characterization of venoms from snakes of the genus Agkistrodon. Toxicon X 2019; 4:100013. [PMID: 32550570 PMCID: PMC7285990 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxcx.2019.100013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2019] [Revised: 06/28/2019] [Accepted: 07/23/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
In the present work, venoms from five species of the genus Agkistrodon were evaluated in terms of their enzymatic (Phospholipase A2 and caseinolytic) and biological (edema forming, hemorrhagic, procoagulant and lethal) effects. Horses were used to produce monovalent hyperimmune sera against each of three venoms (A. bilineatus, A. contortrix and A. piscivorus) and their neutralizing potency, expressed as Median Effective Dose (ED50), was determined against the venoms of all five species. In terms of PLA2 and caseinolytic activities, all venoms are extremely homogeneous. PLA2 activity is high, while caseinolytic activity is low when in contrast with that of the rattlesnake Crotalus simus. On the other hand, biological activities showed marked interspecific differences, particularly between the species from Mexico and those from the United States. Mexican species displayed higher edema-forming, hemorrhagic and lethal effects than US species, while none of the species studied presented procoagulant activity. All three monovalent hyperimmune sera showed good neutralizing potency against the analyzed venoms. Nonetheless, we observed relevant immunochemical differences among the venoms using ELISA and Western Blot assays. We conclude that the venoms of A. piscivorus (USA) and A. bilineatus would be ideal to use as immunogens for the production of a polyvalent antivenom with good neutralizing potency against the venoms of all the species of the genus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luis Román-Domínguez
- Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. Av. Universidad # 2001 Colonia Chamilpa. CP: 62210. Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico
- Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Morelos. Av. Universidad # 2001 Colonia Chamilpa. CP: 62210. Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico
| | - Edgar Neri-Castro
- Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. Av. Universidad # 2001 Colonia Chamilpa. CP: 62210. Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico
| | - Hilda Vázquez López
- Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. Av. Universidad # 2001 Colonia Chamilpa. CP: 62210. Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico
| | - Belem García-Osorio
- Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. Av. Universidad # 2001 Colonia Chamilpa. CP: 62210. Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico
| | - Irving G. Archundia
- Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. Av. Universidad # 2001 Colonia Chamilpa. CP: 62210. Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico
| | - Javier A. Ortiz-Medina
- Campus de Ciencias Biológicas y Agropecuarias, Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán. Km 15.5, Carretera Mérida-Xmatkuil. C.P: 97315. Mérida, Yucatán, Mexico
- Unidad de Manejo para la Conservación de la Vida Silvestre Tsáab Kaan. Km. 2.8, Carretera Baca-Dzemul, C.P. 97450. Baca, Yucatán, Mexico
| | - Vera L. Petricevich
- Facultad de Medicina. Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Morelos. Calle Leñeros S/N, Colonia Vista Hermosa. CP: 62290. Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico
| | - Alejandro Alagón
- Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. Av. Universidad # 2001 Colonia Chamilpa. CP: 62210. Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico
| | - Melisa Bénard-Valle
- Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. Av. Universidad # 2001 Colonia Chamilpa. CP: 62210. Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico
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18
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Neri-Castro E, Hernández-Dávila A, Olvera-Rodríguez A, Cardoso-Torres H, Bénard-Valle M, Bastiaans E, López-Gutierrez O, Alagón A. Detection and quantification of a β-neurotoxin (crotoxin homologs) in the venom of the rattlesnakes Crotalus simus, C. culminatus and C. tzabcan from Mexico. Toxicon X 2019; 2:100007. [PMID: 32550564 PMCID: PMC7286086 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxcx.2019.100007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2018] [Revised: 01/10/2019] [Accepted: 02/03/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Snake venom may vary in composition and toxicity across the geographic distribution of a species. In the case of the three species of the Neotropical rattlesnakes Crotalus simus, C. culminatus and C. tzabcan recent research has revealed that their venoms can contain a neurotoxic component (crotoxin homologs), but is not always the case. In the present work, we detected and quantified crotoxin homologs in venom samples from three species distributed across Mexico, to describe variation at the individual and subspecific levels, using slot blot and ELISA immunoassays. We found that all C. simus individuals analyzed had substantial percentages of crotoxin homologs in their venoms (7.6–44.3%). In contrast, C. culminatus lacked them completely and six of ten individuals of the species C. tzabcan had low percentages (3.0–7.7%). We also found a direct relationship between the lethality of a venom and the percentage of crotoxin homologs it contained, indicating that the quantity of this component influences venom lethality in the rattlesnake C. simus. Monoclonal antibodies were produced that specifically recognized crotoxin homologs in venoms of Crotalus species. Crotoxin homologs were quantified in three species of Crotalus: C. simus, C. culminatus and C. tzabcan. All specimens of C. simus contained crotoxin homologs at different levels, while C. culminatus venoms lacked them completely. In C. tzabcan, some venoms possess and other lack crotoxin homologs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edgar Neri-Castro
- Departamento de Medicina Molecular y Bioprocesos, Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico.,Posgrado en Ciencias Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico
| | - Arely Hernández-Dávila
- Departamento de Medicina Molecular y Bioprocesos, Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico
| | - Alejandro Olvera-Rodríguez
- Departamento de Medicina Molecular y Bioprocesos, Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico
| | - Héctor Cardoso-Torres
- Departamento de Medicina Molecular y Bioprocesos, Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico
| | - Melisa Bénard-Valle
- Departamento de Medicina Molecular y Bioprocesos, Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico
| | - Elizabeth Bastiaans
- Department of Biology, State University of New York at Oneonta, Oneonta, NY, USA
| | - Oswaldo López-Gutierrez
- Departamento de Medicina Molecular y Bioprocesos, Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico
| | - Alejandro Alagón
- Departamento de Medicina Molecular y Bioprocesos, Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico
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Evidence for divergent patterns of local selection driving venom variation in Mojave Rattlesnakes (Crotalus scutulatus). Sci Rep 2018; 8:17622. [PMID: 30514908 PMCID: PMC6279745 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-35810-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2018] [Accepted: 11/09/2018] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Snake venoms represent an enriched system for investigating the evolutionary processes that lead to complex and dynamic trophic adaptations. It has long been hypothesized that natural selection may drive geographic variation in venom composition, yet previous studies have lacked the population genetic context to examine these patterns. We leverage range-wide sampling of Mojave Rattlesnakes (Crotalus scutulatus) and use a combination of venom, morphological, phylogenetic, population genetic, and environmental data to characterize the striking dichotomy of neurotoxic (Type A) and hemorrhagic (Type B) venoms throughout the range of this species. We find that three of the four previously identified major lineages within C. scutulatus possess a combination of Type A, Type B, and a ‘mixed’ Type A + B venom phenotypes, and that fixation of the two main venom phenotypes occurs on a more fine geographic scale than previously appreciated. We also find that Type A + B individuals occur in regions of inferred introgression, and that this mixed phenotype is comparatively rare. Our results support strong directional local selection leading to fixation of alternative venom phenotypes on a fine geographic scale, and are inconsistent with balancing selection to maintain both phenotypes within a single population. Our comparisons to biotic and abiotic factors further indicate that venom phenotype correlates with fang morphology and climatic variables. We hypothesize that links to fang morphology may be indicative of co-evolution of venom and other trophic adaptations, and that climatic variables may be linked to prey distributions and/or physiology, which in turn impose selection pressures on snake venoms.
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20
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Hofmann EP, Rautsaw RM, Strickland JL, Holding ML, Hogan MP, Mason AJ, Rokyta DR, Parkinson CL. Comparative venom-gland transcriptomics and venom proteomics of four Sidewinder Rattlesnake (Crotalus cerastes) lineages reveal little differential expression despite individual variation. Sci Rep 2018; 8:15534. [PMID: 30341342 PMCID: PMC6195556 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-33943-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2018] [Accepted: 10/03/2018] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Changes in gene expression can rapidly influence adaptive traits in the early stages of lineage diversification. Venom is an adaptive trait comprised of numerous toxins used for prey capture and defense. Snake venoms can vary widely between conspecific populations, but the influence of lineage diversification on such compositional differences are unknown. To explore venom differentiation in the early stages of lineage diversification, we used RNA-seq and mass spectrometry to characterize Sidewinder Rattlesnake (Crotalus cerastes) venom. We generated the first venom-gland transcriptomes and complementary venom proteomes for eight individuals collected across the United States and tested for expression differences across life history traits and between subspecific, mitochondrial, and phylotranscriptomic hypotheses. Sidewinder venom was comprised primarily of hemorrhagic toxins, with few cases of differential expression attributable to life history or lineage hypotheses. However, phylotranscriptomic lineage comparisons more than doubled instances of significant expression differences compared to all other factors. Nevertheless, only 6.4% of toxins were differentially expressed overall, suggesting that shallow divergence has not led to major changes in Sidewinder venom composition. Our results demonstrate the need for consensus venom-gland transcriptomes based on multiple individuals and highlight the potential for discrepancies in differential expression between different phylogenetic hypotheses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erich P Hofmann
- Clemson University, Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson, SC, 29634, USA
| | - Rhett M Rautsaw
- Clemson University, Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson, SC, 29634, USA
| | - Jason L Strickland
- Clemson University, Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson, SC, 29634, USA
- University of Central Florida, Department of Biology, Orlando, FL, 32816, USA
| | - Matthew L Holding
- Clemson University, Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson, SC, 29634, USA
- Florida State University, Department of Biological Science, Tallahassee, FL, 32306, USA
| | - Michael P Hogan
- Florida State University, Department of Biological Science, Tallahassee, FL, 32306, USA
| | - Andrew J Mason
- Clemson University, Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson, SC, 29634, USA
| | - Darin R Rokyta
- Florida State University, Department of Biological Science, Tallahassee, FL, 32306, USA
| | - Christopher L Parkinson
- Clemson University, Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson, SC, 29634, USA.
- Clemson University, Department of Forestry and Environmental Conservation, Clemson, SC, 29634, USA.
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21
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Schield DR, Adams RH, Card DC, Corbin AB, Jezkova T, Hales NR, Meik JM, Perry BW, Spencer CL, Smith LL, García GC, Bouzid NM, Strickland JL, Parkinson CL, Borja M, Castañeda-Gaytán G, Bryson RW, Flores-Villela OA, Mackessy SP, Castoe TA. Cryptic genetic diversity, population structure, and gene flow in the Mojave rattlesnake (Crotalus scutulatus). Mol Phylogenet Evol 2018; 127:669-681. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ympev.2018.06.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2017] [Revised: 05/30/2018] [Accepted: 06/06/2018] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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22
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Dowell NL, Giorgianni MW, Griffin S, Kassner VA, Selegue JE, Sanchez EE, Carroll SB. Extremely Divergent Haplotypes in Two Toxin Gene Complexes Encode Alternative Venom Types within Rattlesnake Species. Curr Biol 2018; 28:1016-1026.e4. [PMID: 29576471 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2018.02.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2017] [Revised: 01/11/2018] [Accepted: 02/14/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Natural selection is generally expected to favor one form of a given trait within a population. The presence of multiple functional variants of traits involved in activities such as feeding, reproduction, or the defense against predators is relatively uncommon within animal species. The genetic architecture and evolutionary mechanisms underlying the origin and maintenance of such polymorphisms are of special interest. Among rattlesnakes, several instances of the production of biochemically distinct neurotoxic or hemorrhagic venom types within the same species are known. Here, we investigated the genetic basis of this phenomenon in three species and found that neurotoxic and hemorrhagic individuals of the same species possess markedly different haplotypes at two toxin gene complexes. For example, neurotoxic and hemorrhagic Crotalus scutulatus individuals differ by 5 genes at the phospholipase A2 (PLA2) toxin gene complex and by 11 genes at the metalloproteinase (MP) gene complex. A similar set of extremely divergent haplotypes also underlies alternate venom types within C. helleri and C. horridus. We further show that the MP and PLA2 haplotypes of neurotoxic C. helleri appear to have been acquired through hybridization with C. scutulatus-a rare example of the horizontal transfer of a potentially highly adaptive suite of genes. These large structural variants appear analogous to immunity gene complexes in host-pathogen arms races and may reflect the impact of balancing selection at the PLA2 and MP complexes for predation on different prey.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noah L Dowell
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute and Laboratory of Molecular Biology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, 1525 Linden Drive, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Matt W Giorgianni
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute and Laboratory of Molecular Biology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, 1525 Linden Drive, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Sam Griffin
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute and Laboratory of Molecular Biology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, 1525 Linden Drive, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Victoria A Kassner
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute and Laboratory of Molecular Biology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, 1525 Linden Drive, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Jane E Selegue
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute and Laboratory of Molecular Biology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, 1525 Linden Drive, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Elda E Sanchez
- National Natural Toxins Research Center and Department of Chemistry, Texas A&M University, Kingsville, MSC 224, Kingsville, TX 78363, USA
| | - Sean B Carroll
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute and Laboratory of Molecular Biology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, 1525 Linden Drive, Madison, WI 53706, USA.
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23
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Dobson J, Yang DC, Op den Brouw B, Cochran C, Huynh T, Kurrupu S, Sánchez EE, Massey DJ, Baumann K, Jackson TNW, Nouwens A, Josh P, Neri-Castro E, Alagón A, Hodgson WC, Fry BG. Rattling the border wall: Pathophysiological implications of functional and proteomic venom variation between Mexican and US subspecies of the desert rattlesnake Crotalus scutulatus. Comp Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol 2018; 205:62-69. [PMID: 29074260 PMCID: PMC5825281 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpc.2017.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2017] [Revised: 10/19/2017] [Accepted: 10/19/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
While some US populations of the Mohave rattlesnake (Crotalus scutulatus scutulatus) are infamous for being potently neurotoxic, the Mexican subspecies C. s. salvini (Huamantlan rattlesnake) has been largely unstudied beyond crude lethality testing upon mice. In this study we show that at least some populations of this snake are as potently neurotoxic as its northern cousin. Testing of the Mexican antivenom Antivipmyn showed a complete lack of neutralisation for the neurotoxic effects of C. s. salvini venom, while the neurotoxic effects of the US subspecies C. s. scutulatus were time-delayed but ultimately not eliminated. These results document unrecognised potent neurological effects of a Mexican snake and highlight the medical importance of this subspecies, a finding augmented by the ineffectiveness of the Antivipmyn antivenom. These results also influence our understanding of the venom evolution of Crotalus scutulatus, suggesting that neurotoxicity is the ancestral feature of this species, with the US populations which lack neurotoxicity being derived states.
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Affiliation(s)
- James Dobson
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Daryl C Yang
- Department of Pharmacology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, VIC 3800, Australia
| | - Bianca Op den Brouw
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Chip Cochran
- Department of Earth and Biological Sciences, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA 92350, USA
| | - Tam Huynh
- Department of Pharmacology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, VIC 3800, Australia
| | - Sanjaya Kurrupu
- Department of Pharmacology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, VIC 3800, Australia
| | - Elda E Sánchez
- National Natural Toxins Research Center (NNTRC), Department of Chemistry, Texas A&M University-Kingsville, MSC 224, 975 West Avenue B, Kingsville, TX 78363, USA
| | - Daniel J Massey
- Arizona Poison and Drug Information Center, 1295 N Martin Room B308, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA; Banner University Medical Center, 1501 N. Campbell Ave, Tucson, AZ 85745, USA
| | - Kate Baumann
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Timothy N W Jackson
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia; Australian Venom Research Unit, Department of Pharmacology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3000, Australia
| | - Amanda Nouwens
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia
| | - Peter Josh
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia
| | - Edgar Neri-Castro
- Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Av. Universidad # 2001, Colonia Chamilpa, Cuernavaca, Morelos 62210, Mexico
| | - Alejandro Alagón
- Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Av. Universidad # 2001, Colonia Chamilpa, Cuernavaca, Morelos 62210, Mexico
| | - Wayne C Hodgson
- Department of Pharmacology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, VIC 3800, Australia
| | - Bryan G Fry
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
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Biological and Proteolytic Variation in the Venom of Crotalus scutulatus scutulatus from Mexico. Toxins (Basel) 2018; 10:toxins10010035. [PMID: 29316683 PMCID: PMC5793122 DOI: 10.3390/toxins10010035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2017] [Revised: 12/24/2017] [Accepted: 01/04/2018] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Rattlesnake venoms may be classified according to the presence/absence and relative abundance of the neurotoxic phospholipases A2s (PLA2s), such as Mojave toxin, and snake venom metalloproteinases (SVMPs). In Mexico, studies to determine venom variation in Mojave Rattlesnakes (Crotalus scutulatus scutulatus) are limited and little is known about the biological and proteolytic activities in this species. Tissue (34) and venom (29) samples were obtained from C. s. scutulatus from different locations within their distribution in Mexico. Mojave toxin detection was carried out at the genomic (by PCR) and protein (by ELISA) levels for all tissue and venom samples. Biological activity was tested on representative venoms by measuring LD50 and hemorrhagic activity. To determine the approximate amount of SVMPs, 15 venoms were separated by RP-HPLC and variation in protein profile and proteolytic activity was evaluated by SDS-PAGE (n = 28) and Hide Powder Azure proteolytic analysis (n = 27). Three types of venom were identified in Mexico which is comparable to the intraspecific venom diversity observed in the Sonoran Desert of Arizona, USA: Venom Type A (∼Type II), with Mojave toxin, highly toxic, lacking hemorrhagic activity, and with scarce proteolytic activity; Type B (∼Type I), without Mojave toxin, less toxic than Type A, highly hemorrhagic and proteolytic; and Type A + B, containing Mojave toxin, as toxic as venom Type A, variable in hemorrhagic activity and with intermediate proteolytic activity. We also detected a positive correlation between SVMP abundance and hemorrhagic and proteolytic activities. Although more sampling is necessary, our results suggest that venoms containing Mojave toxin and venom lacking this toxin are distributed in the northwest and southeast portions of the distribution in Mexico, respectively, while an intergradation in the middle of both zones is present.
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25
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Rivas E, Neri-Castro E, Bénard-Valle M, Hernánez-Dávila AI, Zamudio F, Alagón A. General characterization of the venoms from two species of rattlesnakes and an intergrade population (C. lepidus x aquilus) from Aguascalientes and Zacatecas, Mexico. Toxicon 2017; 138:191-195. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2017.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2017] [Revised: 07/31/2017] [Accepted: 09/05/2017] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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26
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Cantú E, Mallela S, Nyguen M, Báez R, Parra V, Johnson R, Wilson K, Suntravat M, Lucena S, Rodríguez-Acosta A, Sánchez EE. The binding effectiveness of anti-r-disintegrin polyclonal antibodies against disintegrins and PII and PIII metalloproteases: An immunological survey of type A, B and A+B venoms from Mohave rattlesnakes. Comp Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol 2017; 191:168-176. [PMID: 27989783 PMCID: PMC5362346 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpc.2016.10.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2016] [Revised: 10/17/2016] [Accepted: 10/25/2016] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Snake venoms are known to have different venom compositions and toxicity, but differences can also be found within populations of the same species contributing to the complexity of treatment of envenomated victims. One of the first well-documented intraspecies venom variations comes from the Mohave rattlesnake (Crotalus scutulatus scutulatus). Initially, three types of venoms were described; type A venom is the most toxic as a result of ~45% Mojave toxin in the venom composition, type B lacks the Mojave toxin but contains over 50% of snake venom metalloproteases (SVMPs). Also, type A+B venom contains a combination of Mojave toxin and SVMP. The use of an anti-disintegrin antibody in a simple Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) can be used to identify the difference between the venoms of the type A, B, and A+B Mohave rattlesnakes. This study implements the use of an anti-recombinant disintegrin polyclonal antibody (ARDPA) for the detection of disintegrins and ADAMs (a disintegrin and metalloproteases) in individual crude snake venoms of Mohave rattlesnakes (Crotalus scutulatus scutulatus) of varying geographical locations. After correlation with Western blots, coagulation activity and LD50 data, it was determined that the antibody allows for a quick and cost-efficient identification of venom types.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esteban Cantú
- National Natural Toxins Research Center (NNTRC), Texas A&M University-Kingsville, MSC 224, 975 West Avenue B, Kingsville, TX 78363, USA
| | - Sahiti Mallela
- National Natural Toxins Research Center (NNTRC), Texas A&M University-Kingsville, MSC 224, 975 West Avenue B, Kingsville, TX 78363, USA
| | - Matthew Nyguen
- National Natural Toxins Research Center (NNTRC), Texas A&M University-Kingsville, MSC 224, 975 West Avenue B, Kingsville, TX 78363, USA
| | - Raúl Báez
- National Natural Toxins Research Center (NNTRC), Texas A&M University-Kingsville, MSC 224, 975 West Avenue B, Kingsville, TX 78363, USA
| | - Victoria Parra
- National Natural Toxins Research Center (NNTRC), Texas A&M University-Kingsville, MSC 224, 975 West Avenue B, Kingsville, TX 78363, USA
| | - Rachel Johnson
- National Natural Toxins Research Center (NNTRC), Texas A&M University-Kingsville, MSC 224, 975 West Avenue B, Kingsville, TX 78363, USA
| | - Kyle Wilson
- National Natural Toxins Research Center (NNTRC), Texas A&M University-Kingsville, MSC 224, 975 West Avenue B, Kingsville, TX 78363, USA
| | - Montamas Suntravat
- National Natural Toxins Research Center (NNTRC), Texas A&M University-Kingsville, MSC 224, 975 West Avenue B, Kingsville, TX 78363, USA
| | - Sara Lucena
- National Natural Toxins Research Center (NNTRC), Texas A&M University-Kingsville, MSC 224, 975 West Avenue B, Kingsville, TX 78363, USA
| | - Alexis Rodríguez-Acosta
- Laboratorio de Inmunoquímica y Ultraestructura, Instituto Anatómico de la Universidad Central de Venezuela, Caracas 1041, Venezuela
| | - Elda E Sánchez
- National Natural Toxins Research Center (NNTRC), Texas A&M University-Kingsville, MSC 224, 975 West Avenue B, Kingsville, TX 78363, USA; Department of Chemistry, Texas A&M University-Kingsville, MSC 161, Kingsville, TX 78363, USA.
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27
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The effects of hybridization on divergent venom phenotypes: Characterization of venom from Crotalus scutulatus scutulatus × Crotalus oreganus helleri hybrids. Toxicon 2016; 120:110-23. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2016.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2016] [Revised: 07/27/2016] [Accepted: 08/01/2016] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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28
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Zancolli G, Baker TG, Barlow A, Bradley RK, Calvete JJ, Carter KC, de Jager K, Owens JB, Price JF, Sanz L, Scholes-Higham A, Shier L, Wood L, Wüster CE, Wüster W. Is Hybridization a Source of Adaptive Venom Variation in Rattlesnakes? A Test, Using a Crotalus scutulatus × viridis Hybrid Zone in Southwestern New Mexico. Toxins (Basel) 2016; 8:toxins8060188. [PMID: 27322321 PMCID: PMC4926154 DOI: 10.3390/toxins8060188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2016] [Revised: 06/02/2016] [Accepted: 06/09/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Venomous snakes often display extensive variation in venom composition both between and within species. However, the mechanisms underlying the distribution of different toxins and venom types among populations and taxa remain insufficiently known. Rattlesnakes (Crotalus, Sistrurus) display extreme inter- and intraspecific variation in venom composition, centered particularly on the presence or absence of presynaptically neurotoxic phospholipases A₂ such as Mojave toxin (MTX). Interspecific hybridization has been invoked as a mechanism to explain the distribution of these toxins across rattlesnakes, with the implicit assumption that they are adaptively advantageous. Here, we test the potential of adaptive hybridization as a mechanism for venom evolution by assessing the distribution of genes encoding the acidic and basic subunits of Mojave toxin across a hybrid zone between MTX-positive Crotalus scutulatus and MTX-negative C. viridis in southwestern New Mexico, USA. Analyses of morphology, mitochondrial and single copy-nuclear genes document extensive admixture within a narrow hybrid zone. The genes encoding the two MTX subunits are strictly linked, and found in most hybrids and backcrossed individuals, but not in C. viridis away from the hybrid zone. Presence of the genes is invariably associated with presence of the corresponding toxin in the venom. We conclude that introgression of highly lethal neurotoxins through hybridization is not necessarily favored by natural selection in rattlesnakes, and that even extensive hybridization may not lead to introgression of these genes into another species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giulia Zancolli
- Molecular Ecology and Fisheries Genetics Lab, School of Biological Sciences, Bangor University, Bangor LL57 2UW, UK.
| | - Timothy G Baker
- Molecular Ecology and Fisheries Genetics Lab, School of Biological Sciences, Bangor University, Bangor LL57 2UW, UK.
| | - Axel Barlow
- Molecular Ecology and Fisheries Genetics Lab, School of Biological Sciences, Bangor University, Bangor LL57 2UW, UK.
- Evolutionary and Adaptive Genomics Group, Institute for Biochemistry and Biology, University of Potsdam, Karl-Liebknecht-Str. 24-25, Haus 29, 14476 Potsdam (Golm), Germany.
| | - Rebecca K Bradley
- Molecular Ecology and Fisheries Genetics Lab, School of Biological Sciences, Bangor University, Bangor LL57 2UW, UK.
| | - Juan J Calvete
- Venomics and Structural Proteomics Laboratory, Instituto de Biomedicina de Valencia, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Jaume Roig 11, 46010 Valencia, Spain.
| | - Kimberley C Carter
- Molecular Ecology and Fisheries Genetics Lab, School of Biological Sciences, Bangor University, Bangor LL57 2UW, UK.
| | - Kaylah de Jager
- Molecular Ecology and Fisheries Genetics Lab, School of Biological Sciences, Bangor University, Bangor LL57 2UW, UK.
| | - John Benjamin Owens
- Molecular Ecology and Fisheries Genetics Lab, School of Biological Sciences, Bangor University, Bangor LL57 2UW, UK.
| | - Jenny Forrester Price
- Molecular Ecology and Fisheries Genetics Lab, School of Biological Sciences, Bangor University, Bangor LL57 2UW, UK.
| | - Libia Sanz
- Venomics and Structural Proteomics Laboratory, Instituto de Biomedicina de Valencia, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Jaume Roig 11, 46010 Valencia, Spain.
| | - Amy Scholes-Higham
- Molecular Ecology and Fisheries Genetics Lab, School of Biological Sciences, Bangor University, Bangor LL57 2UW, UK.
| | - Liam Shier
- Molecular Ecology and Fisheries Genetics Lab, School of Biological Sciences, Bangor University, Bangor LL57 2UW, UK.
| | - Liam Wood
- Molecular Ecology and Fisheries Genetics Lab, School of Biological Sciences, Bangor University, Bangor LL57 2UW, UK.
| | - Catharine E Wüster
- Molecular Ecology and Fisheries Genetics Lab, School of Biological Sciences, Bangor University, Bangor LL57 2UW, UK.
| | - Wolfgang Wüster
- Molecular Ecology and Fisheries Genetics Lab, School of Biological Sciences, Bangor University, Bangor LL57 2UW, UK.
- Chiricahua Desert Museum, P.O. Box 376, Rodeo, NM 88056, USA.
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29
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Marques PP, Esteves A, Lancellotti M, Ponce-Soto LA, Marangoni S. Novel acidic phospholipase A 2 from Porthidium hyoprora causes inflammation with mast cell rich infiltrate. Biochem Biophys Rep 2015; 1:78-84. [PMID: 29124136 PMCID: PMC5668520 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrep.2015.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2015] [Revised: 03/08/2015] [Accepted: 03/09/2015] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Phospholipases A2 (PLA2) are a group of enzymes that hydrolyze phospholipids at the sn-2 position, being present in all nature. In venomous animals, these proteins assume a special role, being able to exert diverse pharmacological effects. In this work, authors identified a new isoform of PLA2 in the venom of Porthidium hyoprora, which was isolated through sequential chromatographic steps and named PhTX-III. The enzyme was characterized biochemically and structurally. Structural studies using mass spectrometry confirmed an acidic secretory PLA2, family IIA, with molecular mass of 13,620.9 Da and identification of 86% of its primary sequence. PhTX-III did not exhibit myotoxic, anticoagulant or antibacterial effects, often present in this class of enzymes. Although, it was capable of initiate inflammatory response, with local edema and release of cytokines IL-1α, IL-6 and TNF-α, probably due to mast cell degranulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Petrus Pires Marques
- Department of Biochemistry and Tissue Biology, Institute of Biology (IB), State University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - Alessandra Esteves
- Department of Anatomy, Institute of Biomedical Sciences (ICB), Federal University of Alfenas (UNIFAL), Alfenas, MG, Brazil
| | - Marcelo Lancellotti
- Department of Biochemistry and Tissue Biology, Institute of Biology (IB), State University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - Luis Alberto Ponce-Soto
- Department of Biochemistry and Tissue Biology, Institute of Biology (IB), State University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - Sergio Marangoni
- Department of Biochemistry and Tissue Biology, Institute of Biology (IB), State University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, SP, Brazil
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30
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Tan KY, Tan CH, Fung SY, Tan NH. Venomics, lethality and neutralization of Naja kaouthia (monocled cobra) venoms from three different geographical regions of Southeast Asia. J Proteomics 2015; 120:105-25. [PMID: 25748141 DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2015.02.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2015] [Revised: 02/18/2015] [Accepted: 02/24/2015] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Previous studies showed that venoms of the monocled cobra, Naja kaouthia from Thailand and Malaysia are substantially different in their median lethal doses. The intraspecific venom variations of N. kaouthia, however, have not been fully elucidated. Here we investigated the venom proteomes of N. kaouthia from Malaysia (NK-M), Thailand (NK-T) and Vietnam (NK-V) through reverse-phase HPLC, SDS-PAGE and tandem mass spectrometry. The venom proteins comprise 13 toxin families, with three-finger toxins being the most abundant (63-77%) and the most varied (11-18 isoforms) among the three populations. NK-T has the highest content of neurotoxins (50%, predominantly long neurotoxins), followed by NK-V (29%, predominantly weak neurotoxins and some short neurotoxins), while NK-M has the least (18%, some weak neurotoxins but less short and long neurotoxins). On the other hand, cytotoxins constitute the main bulk of toxins in NK-M and NK-V venoms (up to 45% each), but less in NK-T venom (27%). The three venoms show different lethal potencies that generally reflect the proteomic findings. Despite the proteomic variations, the use of Thai monovalent and Neuro polyvalent antivenoms for N. kaouthia envenomation in the three regions is appropriate as the different venoms were neutralized by the antivenoms albeit at different degrees of effectiveness. BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE Biogeographical variations were observed in the venom proteome of monocled cobra (Naja kaouthia) from Malaysia, Thailand and Vietnam. The Thai N. kaouthia venom is particularly rich in long neurotoxins, while the Malaysian and Vietnamese specimens were predominated with cytotoxins. The differentially expressed toxin profile accounts for the discrepancy in the lethal dose of the venom from different populations. Commercially available Thai antivenoms (monovalent and polyvalent) were able to neutralize the three venoms at different effective doses, hence supporting their uses in the three regions. While dose adjustment according to geographical region seems possible, changes to standard recommended dosage should only be made if further study validates that the monocled cobras within a population do not exhibit remarkable inter-individual venom variation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kae Yi Tan
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Choo Hock Tan
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia; University of Malaya Centre for Proteomics Research (UMPCR), University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
| | - Shin Yee Fung
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia; University of Malaya Centre for Proteomics Research (UMPCR), University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Nget Hong Tan
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia; University of Malaya Centre for Proteomics Research (UMPCR), University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
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Lanari LC, Olvera A, Costa de Oliveira V, Laskowicz RD, Boyer L, Lago NR, Alejandro A, de Roodt AR. Intraspecific differences in the immunochemical reactivity and neutralization of venom from Argentinean Bothrops (Rhinocerophis) alternatus by specific experimental antivenoms. Toxicon 2014; 85:31-45. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2014.04.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2013] [Revised: 04/04/2014] [Accepted: 04/09/2014] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Borja M, Castañeda G, Espinosa J, Neri E, Carbajal A, Clement H, García O, Alagon A. Mojave Rattlesnake (Crotalus scutulatus scutulatus) with Type B Venom from Mexico. COPEIA 2014. [DOI: 10.1643/ot-12-041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Sunagar K, Undheim EAB, Scheib H, Gren ECK, Cochran C, Person CE, Koludarov I, Kelln W, Hayes WK, King GF, Antunes A, Fry BG. Intraspecific venom variation in the medically significant Southern Pacific Rattlesnake (Crotalus oreganus helleri): biodiscovery, clinical and evolutionary implications. J Proteomics 2014; 99:68-83. [PMID: 24463169 DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2014.01.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2013] [Revised: 01/11/2014] [Accepted: 01/13/2014] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Due to the extreme variation of venom, which consequently results in drastically variable degrees of neutralization by CroFab antivenom, the management and treatment of envenoming by Crotalus oreganus helleri (the Southern Pacific Rattlesnake), one of the most medically significant snake species in all of North America, has been a clinician's nightmare. This snake has also been the subject of sensational news stories regarding supposed rapid (within the last few decades) evolution of its venom. This research demonstrates for the first time that variable evolutionary selection pressures sculpt the intraspecific molecular diversity of venom components in C. o. helleri. We show that myotoxic β-defensin peptides (aka: crotamines/small basic myotoxic peptides) are secreted in large amounts by all populations. However, the mature toxin-encoding nucleotide regions evolve under the constraints of negative selection, likely as a result of their non-specific mode of action which doesn't enforce them to follow the regime of the classic predator-prey chemical arms race. The hemorrhagic and tissue destroying snake venom metalloproteinases (SVMPs) were secreted in larger amounts by the Catalina Island and Phelan rattlesnake populations, in moderate amounts in the Loma Linda population and in only trace levels by the Idyllwild population. Only the Idyllwild population in the San Jacinto Mountains contained potent presynaptic neurotoxic phospholipase A2 complex characteristic of Mohave Rattlesnake (Crotalus scutulatus) and Neotropical Rattlesnake (Crotalus durissus terrificus). The derived heterodimeric lectin toxins characteristic of viper venoms, which exhibit a diversity of biological activities, including anticoagulation, agonism/antagonism of platelet activation, or procoagulation, appear to have evolved under extremely variable selection pressures. While most lectin α- and β-chains evolved rapidly under the influence of positive Darwinian selection, the β-chain lectin of the Catalina Island population appears to have evolved under the constraint of negative selection. Both lectin chains were conspicuously absent in both the proteomics and transcriptomics of the Idyllwild population. Thus, we not only highlight the tremendous biochemical diversity in C. o. helleri's venom-arsenal, but we also show that they experience remarkably variable strengths of evolutionary selection pressures, within each toxin class among populations and among toxin classes within each population. The mapping of geographical venom variation not only provides additional information regarding venom evolution, but also has direct medical implications by allowing prediction of the clinical effects of rattlesnake bites from different regions. Such information, however, also points to these highly variable venoms as being a rich source of novel toxins which may ultimately prove to be useful in drug design and development. BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE These results have direct implications for the treatment of envenomed patients. The variable venom profile of Crotalus oreganus helleri underscores the biodiscovery potential of novel snake venoms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kartik Sunagar
- Departamento de Biologia, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade do Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal; CIIMAR/CIMAR, Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research, University of Porto, Rua dos Bragas 289, P 4050-123 Porto, Portugal
| | - Eivind A B Undheim
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland, Australia; Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Holger Scheib
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Eric C K Gren
- Department of Earth and Biological Sciences, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA 92350, USA
| | - Chip Cochran
- Department of Earth and Biological Sciences, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA 92350, USA
| | - Carl E Person
- Department of Earth and Biological Sciences, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA 92350, USA
| | - Ivan Koludarov
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland, Australia
| | - Wayne Kelln
- Department of Earth and Biological Sciences, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA 92350, USA
| | - William K Hayes
- Department of Earth and Biological Sciences, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA 92350, USA
| | - Glenn F King
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Agosthino Antunes
- Departamento de Biologia, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade do Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal; CIIMAR/CIMAR, Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research, University of Porto, Rua dos Bragas 289, P 4050-123 Porto, Portugal
| | - Bryan Grieg Fry
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland, Australia; Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia.
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Comparison of total protein and phospholipase A2 levels in individual coralsnake venoms. Toxicon 2013; 76:59-62. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2013.09.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2013] [Revised: 09/09/2013] [Accepted: 09/12/2013] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Abstract
Snakebite is classified by the WHO as a neglected tropical disease. Envenoming is a significant public health problem in tropical and subtropical regions. Neurotoxicity is a key feature of some envenomings, and there are many unanswered questions regarding this manifestation. Acute neuromuscular weakness with respiratory involvement is the most clinically important neurotoxic effect. Data is limited on the many other acute neurotoxic manifestations, and especially delayed neurotoxicity. Symptom evolution and recovery, patterns of weakness, respiratory involvement, and response to antivenom and acetyl cholinesterase inhibitors are variable, and seem to depend on the snake species, type of neurotoxicity, and geographical variations. Recent data have challenged the traditional concepts of neurotoxicity in snake envenoming, and highlight the rich diversity of snake neurotoxins. A uniform system of classification of the pattern of neuromuscular weakness and models for predicting type of toxicity and development of respiratory weakness are still lacking, and would greatly aid clinical decision making and future research. This review attempts to update the reader on the current state of knowledge regarding this important issue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Udaya K. Ranawaka
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Kelaniya, Ragama, Sri Lanka
- * E-mail:
| | - David G. Lalloo
- Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
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Comparison of venom composition and biological activities of the subspecies Crotalus lepidus lepidus, Crotalus lepidus klauberi and Crotalus lepidus morulus from Mexico. Toxicon 2013; 71:84-95. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2013.05.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2013] [Revised: 05/12/2013] [Accepted: 05/15/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Genetic Basis for Variation of Metalloproteinase-Associated Biochemical Activity in Venom of the Mojave Rattlesnake (Crotalus scutulatus scutulatus). Biochem Res Int 2013; 2013:251474. [PMID: 23984070 PMCID: PMC3745941 DOI: 10.1155/2013/251474] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2013] [Accepted: 06/25/2013] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The metalloproteinase composition and biochemical profiles of rattlesnake venom can be highly variable among rattlesnakes of the same species. We have previously shown that the neurotoxic properties of the Mojave rattlesnake (Crotalus scutulatus scutulatus) are associated with the presence of the Mojave toxin A subunit suggesting the existence of a genetic basis for rattlesnake venom composition. In this report, we hypothesized the existence of a genetic basis for intraspecies variation in metalloproteinase-associated biochemical properties of rattlesnake venom of the Mojave rattlesnake. To address this question, we PCR-amplified and compared the genomic DNA nucleotide sequences that code for the mature metalloproteinase domain of fourteen Mojave rattlesnakes captured from different geographical locations across the southwest region of the United States. In addition, the venoms from the same rattlesnakes were tested for their ability to hydrolyze fibrinogen, fibrin, casein, and hide powder azure and for induction of hemorrhage in mice. Overall, based on genomic sequencing and biochemical data, we classified Mojave rattlesnake venom into four distinct groups of metalloproteinases. These findings indicate that differences in nucleotide sequences encoding the mature proteinase domain and noncoding regions contribute to differences in venom metalloproteinase activities among rattlesnakes of the same species.
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Carstairs SD, Kreshak AA, Tanen DA. Crotaline Fab antivenom reverses platelet dysfunction induced by Crotalus scutulatus venom: an in vitro study. Acad Emerg Med 2013; 20:522-5. [PMID: 23672368 DOI: 10.1111/acem.12135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2012] [Revised: 10/22/2012] [Accepted: 11/15/2012] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Patients sustaining rattlesnake envenomation often develop thrombocytopenia, the etiology of which is not clear. Laboratory studies have demonstrated that venom from several species, including the Mojave rattlesnake (Crotalus scutulatus scutulatus), can inhibit platelet aggregation. In humans, administration of crotaline Fab antivenom has been shown to result in transient improvement of platelet levels; however, it is not known whether platelet aggregation also improves after antivenom administration. OBJECTIVES The objective was to determine the effect of C. scutulatus venom on platelet aggregation in vitro in the presence and absence of crotaline Fab antivenom. METHODS Blood was obtained from four healthy male adult volunteers not currently using aspirin, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, or other platelet-inhibiting agents. C. scutulatus venom from a single snake with known type B (hemorrhagic) activity was obtained from the National Natural Toxins Research Center. Measurement of platelet aggregation by an aggregometer was performed using five standard concentrations of epinephrine (a known platelet aggregator) on platelet-rich plasma over time, and a mean area under the curve (AUC) was calculated. Five different sample groups were measured: 1) blood alone, 2) blood + C. scutulatus venom (0.3 mg/mL), 3) blood + crotaline Fab antivenom (100 mg/mL), 4) blood + venom + antivenom (100 mg/mL), and 5) blood + venom + antivenom (4 mg/mL). Standard errors of the mean (SEM) were calculated for each group, and paired t-tests were used to measure differences between groups. RESULTS Antivenom administration by itself (group 2) did not significantly affect platelet aggregation compared to baseline (103.8%, SEM ± 3.4%, p = 0.47). Administration of venom (group 3) decreased platelet aggregation (72.0%, SEM ± 8.5%, p < 0.05). Concentrated antivenom administration in the presence of venom (group 4) normalized platelet aggregation (101.4%, SEM ± 6.8%) and in the presence of diluted antivenom (group 5) significantly increased aggregation (133.9%, SEM ± 9.0%; p < 0.05 for both groups when compared to the venom-only group). To further assess the effects of the venom and antivenom, each was run independently in platelet-rich plasma without epinephrine; neither was found to significantly alter platelet aggregation in the absence of epinephrine. CONCLUSIONS Crotaline Fab antivenom improved platelet aggregation in an in vitro model of platelet dysfunction induced by venom from C. scutulatus. It is unclear at this time whether this improvement in platelet dysfunction translates into improved clinical outcomes in envenomated patients.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - David A. Tanen
- Department of Emergency Medicine; Naval Medical Center; San Diego; CA
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Durban J, Pérez A, Sanz L, Gómez A, Bonilla F, Rodríguez S, Chacón D, Sasa M, Angulo Y, Gutiérrez JM, Calvete JJ. Integrated "omics" profiling indicates that miRNAs are modulators of the ontogenetic venom composition shift in the Central American rattlesnake, Crotalus simus simus. BMC Genomics 2013; 14:234. [PMID: 23575160 PMCID: PMC3660174 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2164-14-234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 151] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2012] [Accepted: 03/14/2013] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Understanding the processes that drive the evolution of snake venom is a topic of great research interest in molecular and evolutionary toxinology. Recent studies suggest that ontogenetic changes in venom composition are genetically controlled rather than environmentally induced. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying these changes remain elusive. Here we have explored the basis and level of regulation of the ontogenetic shift in the venom composition of the Central American rattlesnake, Crotalus s. simus using a combined proteomics and transcriptomics approach. RESULTS Proteomic analysis showed that the ontogenetic shift in the venom composition of C. s. simus is essentially characterized by a gradual reduction in the expression of serine proteinases and PLA2 molecules, particularly crotoxin, a β-neurotoxic heterodimeric PLA2, concominantly with an increment of PI and PIII metalloproteinases at age 9-18 months. Comparison of the transcriptional activity of the venom glands of neonate and adult C. s. simus specimens indicated that their transcriptomes exhibit indistinguisable toxin family profiles, suggesting that the elusive mechanism by which shared transcriptomes generate divergent venom phenotypes may operate post-transcriptionally. Specifically, miRNAs with frequency count of 1000 or greater exhibited an uneven distribution between the newborn and adult datasets. Of note, 590 copies of a miRNA targeting crotoxin B-subunit was exclusively found in the transcriptome of the adult snake, whereas 1185 copies of a miRNA complementary to a PIII-SVMP mRNA was uniquely present in the newborn dataset. These results support the view that age-dependent changes in the concentration of miRNA modulating the transition from a crotoxin-rich to a SVMP-rich venom from birth through adulthood can potentially explain what is observed in the proteomic analysis of the ontogenetic changes in the venom composition of C. s. simus. CONCLUSIONS Existing snake venom toxins are the result of early recruitment events in the Toxicofera clade of reptiles by which ordinary genes were duplicated, and the new genes selectively expressed in the venom gland and amplified to multigene families with extensive neofunctionalization throughout the approximately 112-125 million years of ophidian evolution. Our findings support the view that understanding the phenotypic diversity of snake venoms requires a deep knowledge of the mechanisms regulating the transcriptional and translational activity of the venom gland. Our results suggest a functional role for miRNAs. The impact of specific miRNAs in the modulation of venom composition, and the integration of the mechanisms responsible for the generation of these miRNAs in the evolutionary landscape of the snake's venom gland, are further challenges for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jordi Durban
- Instituto de Biomedicina de Valencia, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Jaime Roig 11, Valencia 46010, Spain
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Massey DJ, Calvete JJ, Sánchez EE, Sanz L, Richards K, Curtis R, Boesen K. Venom variability and envenoming severity outcomes of the Crotalus scutulatus scutulatus (Mojave rattlesnake) from Southern Arizona. J Proteomics 2012; 75:2576-87. [PMID: 22446891 DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2012.02.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2012] [Revised: 02/24/2012] [Accepted: 02/29/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Twenty-one Mojave rattlesnakes, Crotalus scutulatus scutulatus (C. s. scutulatus), were collected from Arizona and New Mexico U.S.A. Venom proteome of each specimen was analyzed using reverse-phase HPLC and SDS-PAGE. The toxicity of venoms was analyzed using lethal dose 50 (LD(50)). Health severity outcomes between two Arizona counties U.S.A., Pima and Cochise, were determined by retrospective chart review of the Arizona Poison and Drug Information Center (APDIC) database between the years of 2002 and 2009. Six phenotypes (A-F) were identified based on three venom protein families; Mojave toxin, snake venom metalloproteinases PI and PIII (SVMP), and myotoxin-A. Venom changed geographically from SVMP-rich to Mojave toxin-rich phenotypes as you move from south central to southeastern Arizona. Phenotypes containing myotoxin-A were only found in the transitional zone between the SVMP and Mojave toxin phenotypes. Venom samples containing the largest amounts of SVMP or Mojave toxin had the highest and lowest LD(50s), respectively. There was a significant difference when comparing the presence of neurotoxic effects between Pima and Cochise counties (p=0.001). No significant difference was found when comparing severity (p=0.32), number of antivenom vials administered (p=0.17), days spent in a health care facility (p=0.23) or envenomation per 100,000 population (p=0.06). Although not part of the original data to be collected, death and intubations, were also noted. There is a 10× increased risk of death and a 50× increased risk of intubations if envenomated in Cochise County.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel J Massey
- Arizona Poison and Drug Information Center, Tucson, AZ 85721, United States.
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Calvete JJ, Pérez A, Lomonte B, Sánchez EE, Sanz L. Snake venomics of Crotalus tigris: the minimalist toxin arsenal of the deadliest Nearctic rattlesnake venom. Evolutionary Clues for generating a pan-specific antivenom against crotalid type II venoms [corrected]. J Proteome Res 2012; 11:1382-90. [PMID: 22181673 DOI: 10.1021/pr201021d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
We report the proteomic and antivenomic characterization of Crotalus tigris venom. This venom exhibits the highest lethality for mice among rattlesnakes and the simplest toxin proteome reported to date. The venom proteome of C. tigris comprises 7-8 gene products from 6 toxin families; the presynaptic β-neurotoxic heterodimeric PLA(2), Mojave toxin, and two serine proteinases comprise, respectively, 66 and 27% of the C. tigris toxin arsenal, whereas a VEGF-like protein, a CRISP molecule, a medium-sized disintegrin, and 1-2 PIII-SVMPs each represent 0.1-5% of the total venom proteome. This toxin profile really explains the systemic neuro- and myotoxic effects observed in envenomated animals. In addition, we found that venom lethality of C. tigris and other North American rattlesnake type II venoms correlates with the concentration of Mojave toxin A-subunit, supporting the view that the neurotoxic venom phenotype of crotalid type II venoms may be described as a single-allele adaptation. Our data suggest that the evolutionary trend toward neurotoxicity, which has been also reported for the South American rattlesnakes, may have resulted by pedomorphism. The ability of an experimental antivenom to effectively immunodeplete proteins from the type II venoms of C. tigris, Crotalus horridus , Crotalus oreganus helleri, Crotalus scutulatus scutulatus, and Sistrurus catenatus catenatus indicated the feasibility of generating a pan-American anti-Crotalus type II antivenom, suggested by the identification of shared evolutionary trends among South and North American Crotalus species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan J Calvete
- Departamento de Biotecnología, Universidad Politécnica de Valencia, Valencia, Spain.
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Lavonas EJ, Ruha AM, Banner W, Bebarta V, Bernstein JN, Bush SP, Kerns WP, Richardson WH, Seifert SA, Tanen DA, Curry SC, Dart RC. Unified treatment algorithm for the management of crotaline snakebite in the United States: results of an evidence-informed consensus workshop. BMC Emerg Med 2011; 11:2. [PMID: 21291549 PMCID: PMC3042971 DOI: 10.1186/1471-227x-11-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 132] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2010] [Accepted: 02/03/2011] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Envenomation by crotaline snakes (rattlesnake, cottonmouth, copperhead) is a complex, potentially lethal condition affecting thousands of people in the United States each year. Treatment of crotaline envenomation is not standardized, and significant variation in practice exists. METHODS A geographically diverse panel of experts was convened for the purpose of deriving an evidence-informed unified treatment algorithm. Research staff analyzed the extant medical literature and performed targeted analyses of existing databases to inform specific clinical decisions. A trained external facilitator used modified Delphi and structured consensus methodology to achieve consensus on the final treatment algorithm. RESULTS A unified treatment algorithm was produced and endorsed by all nine expert panel members. This algorithm provides guidance about clinical and laboratory observations, indications for and dosing of antivenom, adjunctive therapies, post-stabilization care, and management of complications from envenomation and therapy. CONCLUSIONS Clinical manifestations and ideal treatment of crotaline snakebite differ greatly, and can result in severe complications. Using a modified Delphi method, we provide evidence-informed treatment guidelines in an attempt to reduce variation in care and possibly improve clinical outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric J Lavonas
- Rocky Mountain Poison and Drug Center, Denver Health and Hospital Authority, Denver, Colorado, USA
- Division of Medical Toxicology, Department of Emergency Medicine, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, USA
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Wilford Hall Medical Center, San Antonio, Texas, USA
| | - Anne-Michelle Ruha
- Department of Medical Toxicology, Banner Good Samaritan Medical Center, Phoenix, Arizona, USA
| | - William Banner
- Oklahoma Poison Center, College of Pharmacy, University of Oklahoma, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, USA
- Pediatric Intensive Care Unit, Integris Baptist Medical Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, USA
| | | | - Jeffrey N Bernstein
- Florida Poison Information Center, Miami, Florida, USA
- Emergency Care Center, Jackson Memorial Hospital, Miami, Florida, USA
| | - Sean P Bush
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Loma Linda University School of Medicine, Loma Linda, California USA
| | - William P Kerns
- Division of Medical Toxicology, Department of Emergency Medicine and Carolinas Poison Center, Carolinas Medical Center, Charlotte, North Carolina, USA
| | - William H Richardson
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Palmetto Health Richland, Columbia, South Carolina, USA
- Palmetto Poison Center, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina, USA
| | - Steven A Seifert
- New Mexico Poison and Drug Information Center, College of Pharmacy, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico, USA
- Department of Emergency Medicine, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, Albuquerque, New Mexico, USA
| | - David A Tanen
- Naval Medical Center, San Diego, California, USA
- Division of Medical Toxicology, Department of Emergency Medicine, University of California at San Diego, San Diego, California, USA
| | - Steve C Curry
- Department of Medical Toxicology, Banner Good Samaritan Medical Center, Phoenix, Arizona, USA
| | - Richard C Dart
- Rocky Mountain Poison and Drug Center, Denver Health and Hospital Authority, Denver, Colorado, USA
- Division of Medical Toxicology, Department of Emergency Medicine, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, USA
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Girón ME, Estrella A, Sánchez EE, Galán J, Tao WA, Guerrero B, Salazar AM, Rodríguez-Acosta A. Purification and characterization of a metalloproteinase, Porthidin-1, from the venom of Lansberg's hog-nosed pitvipers (Porthidium lansbergii hutmanni). Toxicon 2011; 57:608-18. [PMID: 21255600 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2011.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2010] [Revised: 12/23/2010] [Accepted: 01/07/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Porthidium lansbergii hutmanni is a small pit viper found on Margarita Island, Venezuela. Local tissue damage is one of the most obvious characteristics of P. l. hutmanni envenomation, which can lead to diverse pathological effects, such as hemorrhage, edema, blistering, necrosis, lymphatic vessel damage and degradation of extracellular matrix. Metalloproteinases are one of the major components in venoms responsible for these effects. To date, very little is known or has been reported on P. l. hutmanni venom. Crude P. l. hutmanni venom had a LD(50) of 2.5 mg/kg and was considered very hemorrhagic (minimal hemorrhagic dose [MHD]: 0.98 μg) when compared to other hemorrhagic (Bothrops) venoms in Venezuela. Crude P. l. hutmanni venom also inhibited ADP-induced platelet aggregation. A metalloproteinase, Porthidin-1, from this venom was isolated by three chromatography steps (Sephadex G100, Superose 12 HR10/30 and Bioscale Q2). Porthidin-1 falls in the SVMP P-I class having a molecular weight of 23 kDa, verified by both SDS-PAGE and mass spectrometry. High-resolution mass spectrometry and a database search identified a peptide from Porthidin-1 (YNGDLDK) belonging to the SVMP family of proteins. Porthidin-1 contained hemorrhagic, fibrino(geno)lytic, caseinolytic and gelatinolytic activities, and these activities were capable of being neutralized by metalloproteinase inhibitors but not serine proteinase inhibitors. The peptide YNGDLDK shared similarities with five venom proteins with a BLAST e-value of <1. This work details the biochemical and pathophysiological effects that can result from envenomations, and highlights the importance and significance for characterizing unknown or poorly documented venoms from different geographical regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- María E Girón
- Sección de Inmunoquímica, Instituto de Medicina Tropical, Caracas DF 1041, Venezuela
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Shashidharamurthy R, Mahadeswaraswamy Y, Ragupathi L, Vishwanath B, Kemparaju K. Systemic pathological effects induced by cobra (Naja naja) venom from geographically distinct origins of Indian peninsula. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010; 62:587-92. [DOI: 10.1016/j.etp.2009.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2008] [Revised: 04/27/2009] [Accepted: 08/10/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Lanari LC, Rosset S, González ME, Liria N, de Roodt AR. A study on the venom of Bothrops alternatus Duméril, Bibron and Duméril, from different regions of Argentina. Toxicon 2010; 55:1415-24. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2010.01.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2009] [Revised: 01/22/2010] [Accepted: 01/27/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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Evolutionary trends in venom composition in the western rattlesnakes (Crotalus viridis sensu lato): toxicity vs. tenderizers. Toxicon 2010; 55:1463-74. [PMID: 20227433 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2010.02.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2009] [Revised: 02/23/2010] [Accepted: 02/24/2010] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The Western Rattlesnake (Crotalus viridis sensu lato, now including Crotalus oreganus) is broadly distributed across the western half of the United States, northwestern Mexico and southwestern Canada, and eight subspecies are currently recognized. Although some venom characteristics have been noted for most subspecies, a systematic study of venoms from all subspecies has not been reported. Venom was extracted from snakes collected from approximate geographic range centers for all subspecies and analyzed using SDS-PAGE, MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry, enzyme and toxicity assays. Electrophoretic and mass spectrometric analyses demonstrated that small myotoxins, disintegrins and PLA(2) were abundant in most venoms. PIII and PI metalloproteinases ( approximately 54 kDa and 23 kDa, respectively) were common to all venoms except C. o. concolor, C. o. caliginis and C.o. helleri. Metalloproteinase activity was highest in C. o. cerberus and lowest in C. o. concolor venoms ( approximately 100-fold difference). Conversely, C. o. concolor venom was the most toxic and C. o. cerberus venom was least toxic (15-fold difference). In general, venoms with high metalloproteinase activity were less toxic (type I venoms), while venoms which were highly toxic showed low protease activity (type II venoms). Within the C. viridis/oreganus complex, these two extremes of venom compositional phenotypes are observed, and it appears that high metalloproteinase activity and high toxicity are incompatible qualities of these venoms. The functional significance of these biochemical characteristics likely relates to characteristics of prey consumed, and venoms with low metalloproteinase activity may constrain snake prey selection or foraging activity patterns.
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Abstract
Crotaline snakebites occur frequently in children, often resulting in significant morbidity. Crotalidae Polyvalent Immune Fab antivenom (FabAV) became available for clinical use in the US in 2000 and is currently the standard of care for the treatment of crotaline envenomation. The pediatric emergency care provider should be familiar with FabAV because its judicious use in affected children can greatly decrease morbidity caused by crotaline snakebites. This article will review the use of FabAV for the treatment of pediatric crotaline envenomation.
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Salazar AM, Guerrero B, Cantu B, Cantu E, Rodríguez-Acosta A, Pérez JC, Galán JA, Tao A, Sánchez EE. Venom variation in hemostasis of the southern Pacific rattlesnake (Crotalus oreganus helleri): isolation of hellerase. Comp Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol 2009; 149:307-16. [PMID: 18804187 PMCID: PMC2706139 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpc.2008.08.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2008] [Revised: 08/11/2008] [Accepted: 08/20/2008] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Envenomations by the southern Pacific rattlesnake (Crotalus oreganus helleri) are the most common snakebite accidents in southern California. Intraspecies venom variation may lead to unresponsiveness to antivenom therapy. Even in a known species, venom toxins are recognized as diverse in conformity with interpopulational, seasonal, ontogenetic and individual factors. Five venoms of individual C. oreganus helleri located in Riverside and San Bernardino counties of southern California were studied for their variation in their hemostatic activity. The results demonstrated that Riverside 2 and San Bernardino 1 venoms presented the highest lethal activity without hemorrhagic activity. In contrast, San Bernardino 2 and 3 venoms had the highest hemorrhagic and fibrinolytic activities with low lethal and coagulant activities. Riverside 1, Riverside 2 and San Bernardino 1 venoms presented a significant thrombin-like activity. San Bernardino 2 and 3 venoms presented an insignificant thrombin-like activity. In relation to the fibrinolytic activity, San Bernardino 3 venom was the most active on fibrin plates, which was in turn neutralized by metal chelating inhibitors. These results demonstrate the differences amongst C. oreganus helleri venoms from close localities. A metalloproteinase, hellerase, was purified by anionic and cationic exchange chromatographies from San Bernardino 3 venom. Hellerase exhibited the ability to break fibrin clots in vitro, which can be of biomedically importance in the treatment of heart attacks and strokes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Maria Salazar
- Laboratorio de Fisiopatología, Centro de Medicina Experimental, Instituto Venezolano de Investigaciones Científicas (IVIC), Apartado 21827, Caracas 1020, Venezuela
| | - Belsy Guerrero
- Laboratorio de Fisiopatología, Centro de Medicina Experimental, Instituto Venezolano de Investigaciones Científicas (IVIC), Apartado 21827, Caracas 1020, Venezuela
| | - Bruno Cantu
- Natural Toxins Research Center, Texas A&M University-Kingsville, Kingsville, TX 78363, USA
| | - Esteban Cantu
- Natural Toxins Research Center, Texas A&M University-Kingsville, Kingsville, TX 78363, USA
| | - Alexis Rodríguez-Acosta
- Sección de Inmunoquímica, Instituto de Medicina Tropical, Universidad Central de Venezuela, Caracas, Venezuela
| | - John C. Pérez
- Natural Toxins Research Center, Texas A&M University-Kingsville, Kingsville, TX 78363, USA
| | - Jacob A. Galán
- Departments of Biochemistry, Chemistry, and Medicinal Chemistry & Molecular Pharmacology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - Andy Tao
- Departments of Biochemistry, Chemistry, and Medicinal Chemistry & Molecular Pharmacology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - Elda E. Sánchez
- Natural Toxins Research Center, Texas A&M University-Kingsville, Kingsville, TX 78363, USA
- Address correspondence: Dr. Elda E. Sánchez, e-mail:
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Gutiérrez JM, Lomonte B, León G, Alape-Girón A, Flores-Díaz M, Sanz L, Angulo Y, Calvete JJ. Snake venomics and antivenomics: Proteomic tools in the design and control of antivenoms for the treatment of snakebite envenoming. J Proteomics 2009; 72:165-82. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2009.01.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 142] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2008] [Revised: 01/01/2009] [Accepted: 01/07/2009] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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Sánchez EE, Rodríguez-Acosta A. Inhibitors of Snake Venoms and Development of New Therapeutics. Immunopharmacol Immunotoxicol 2008; 30:647-78. [DOI: 10.1080/08923970802279019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Elda E. Sánchez
- 1Natural Toxins Research Center (NTRC), College of Arts and Sciences, Texas A&M University-Kingsville, Kingsville, Texas, USA
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