Studies on "early" enzymes in HeLa cells infected with vaccinia virus

Poxvirus Recombination

Genetic recombination is used as a tool for modifying the composition of poxvirus genomes in both discovery and applied research. This review documents the history behind the development of these tools as well as what has been learned about the processes that catalyze virus recombination and the links between it and DNA replication and repair. The study of poxvirus recombination extends back to the 1930s with the discovery that one virus can reactivate another by a process later shown to generate recombinants. In the years that followed it was shown that recombinants can be produced in virus-by-virus crosses within a genus (e.g., variola-by-rabbitpox) and efforts were made to produce recombination-based genetic maps with modest success. The marker rescue mapping method proved more useful and led to methods for making genetically engineered viruses. Many further insights into the mechanism of recombination have been provided by transfection studies which have shown that this is a high-frequency process associated with hybrid DNA formation and inextricably linked to replication. The links reflect the fact that poxvirus DNA polymerases, specifically the vaccinia virus E9 enzyme, can catalyze strand transfer in in vivo and in vitro reactions dependent on the 3'-to-5' proofreading exonuclease and enhanced by the I3 replicative single-strand DNA binding protein. These reactions have shaped the composition of virus genomes and are modulated by constraints imposed on virus-virus interactions by viral replication in cytoplasmic factories. As recombination reactions are used for replication fork assembly and repair in many biological systems, further study of these reactions may provide new insights into still poorly understood features of poxvirus DNA replication.

Extrachromosomal recombination in vaccinia-infected cells requires a functional DNA polymerase participating at a level other than DNA replication

Homologous recombination was measured in vaccinia-infected cells cotransfected with two plasmid recombination substrates. One plasmid contains a vaccinia protein lacZ coding region bearing a 1.1 kb 3' terminal deletion while the other plasmid contains a non-promoted lacZ coding region bearing a 1.1 kb 5' terminal deletion. Homologous recombination occurring between the 825 bp of lacZ common to both plasmids regenerates a functional lacZ gene from which B-galactosidase expression was measured. The entire 3 kb lacZ gene was used as a positive control. A panel of thermosensitive mutants was screened in cells either transfected with the positive control plasmid or cotransfected with the recombination substrates. A DNA - mutant, ts42, known to map to the viral DNA polymerase gene was found to be defective in recombination. Significantly, other DNA - mutants, ts17 or ts25, or other DNA polymerase mutants did not exhibit a defect in recombination similar to ts42. Inhibitors of viral DNA synthesis did not uniformly affect recombination. Cytosine arabinoside and aphidicolin inhibited B-galactosidase expression from the recombination substrates but not from the positive control plasmid, whereas hydroxyurea enhanced expression from both. Marker rescue with the cloned wildtype DNA polymerase gene repaired the defect in ts42. Southern and western analyses demonstrated that B-galactosidase activity was consistent with a recombined lacZ gene and unit size 116 kDa protein. Measurement of plasmid and viral DNA replication in cells infected with the different DNA - mutants indicated that recombination was independent of plasmid and viral DNA replication. Together these results suggest that the vaccinia DNA polymerase participates in homologous recombination at a level other than that of DNA replication.

Vaccinia virus produces late mRNAs by discontinuous synthesis

We describe the unusual structure of a vaccinia virus late mRNA. In these molecules, the protein-coding sequences of a major late structural polypeptide are preceded by long leader RNAs, which in some cases are thousands of nucleotides long. These sequences map to different regions of the viral genome and in one instance are separated from the late gene by more than 100 kb of DNA. Moreover, the leader sequences map either upstream or downstream of the late gene, are transcribed from either DNA strand, and are fused to the late gene coding sequence via a poly(A) stretch. This demonstrates that vaccinia virus produces late mRNAs by tagging the protein-coding sequences onto the 3' end of other RNAs.

Single-stranded deoxyribonucleic acid nuclease induced by African swine fever virus and associated to the virion

Infection of Vero cells with African swine fever (ASF) virus resulted in a marked increase of DNase active on single-stranded DNA (ss-DNase). No increase was observed for double-stranded DNA-specific nuclease activity. In contrast to uninfected cell ss-DNase, which has a pH optimum at pH range 8.5-9, virus-induced ss-DNase is most active at pH 7. Differences in sensitivity to several ions and other modifications of the reaction mixture and considerable difference in reaction kinetics suggest that the increase in nuclease activity is due to a new virus-induced enzyme. This is strengthened by the fact that anti-ASF virus antiserum inhibits the activity of ss-DNase from infected cells but not from uninfected cells. Exclusion chromatography of the digests shows that virus-specific ss-DNase is exclusively or predominantly an endonuclease. The increase in nuclease activity of infected cells is proportional to the multiplicity of infection. Virus-specific ss-DNase is synthesized at late times after infection and its synthesis is dependent on viral DNA replication since it is not induced when infected cells are treated with cytosine arabinoside. Most of ss-DNase activity in infected cells is associated to an insoluble cytoplasmic fraction, presumably virosomes. The enzyme can also be detected in partially stripped purified virions which hydrolyze 6.9 ng DNA per microgram viral protein.

Vaccinia virus, herpes simplex virus, and carcinogens induce DNA amplification in a human cell line and support replication of a helpervirus dependent parvovirus

The SV40-transformed human kidney cell line, NB-E, amplifies integrated as well as episomal SV40 DNA upon treatment with chemical (DMBA) or physical (uv irradiation) carcinogens ("initiators") as well as after infection with herpes simplex virus (HSV) type 1 or with vaccinia virus. In addition it is shown that vaccinia virus induces SV40 DNA amplification also in the SV40-transformed Chinese hamster embryo cell line, CO631. These findings demonstrate that human cells similar to Chinese hamster cells amplify integrated DNA sequences after treatment with carcinogens or infection with specific viruses. Furthermore, a poxvirus--vaccinia virus--similar to herpes group viruses induces DNA amplification. As reported for other systems, the vaccinia virus-induced DNA amplification in NB-E cells is inhibited by coinfection with adeno-associated virus (AAV) type 5. This is in line with previous studies on inhibition of carcinogen- or HSV-induced DNA amplification in CO631 cells. The experiments also demonstrate that vaccinia virus, in addition to herpes and adenoviruses acts as a helper virus for replication and structural antigen synthesis of AAV-5 in NB-E cells.

Uncoating of vaccinia virus

Input vaccinia virus deoxyribonucleoproteids with buoyant densities (in CsCl) very similar (if not identical) to those of viral cores have been found in large cytoplasmic structures in which viral DNA replication takes place. The deoxyribonucleoproteids consist of at least five major and two minor core proteins and viral DNA which is protected against DNase digestion. It is suggested that viral core-like deoxyribonucleoproteids rather than released DNA are used in vaccinia-infected cells both for delayed-early gene transcription and viral DNA replication.

Vaccinia virus-induced ribonucleotide reductase can be distinguished from host cell activity

Increased ribonucleotide reductase activity has been detected in vaccinia virus-infected BSC-40 cells. We have studied certain biochemical and kinetic properties of CDP reduction in extracts from infected and uninfected cells. ATP inhibited reductase activity in crude extracts by rapid and extensive substrate phosphorylation. Substitution of adenylylimido-diphosphate (AMP-PNP), a noncleavable analog that functions as positive activator for reductase, but inhibits phosphorylation and cleavage of substrate, allowed us to reliably measure reductase activity. In the presence of AMP-PNP, CDP reduction by extracts from infected or uninfected cells was linear with time for 60 min and with enzyme concentration, except at very low enzyme levels. Activities from both sources were optimally active at pH 8.1. Variation of AMP-PNP and Mg2+ concentrations revealed, however, that in the absence of exogenous Mg2+, AMP-PNP strongly stimulated virus-induced CDP reduction, but inhibited endogenous CDP reduction. In the presence of the activator, increasing Mg2+ concentrations progressively inhibited the induced activity, but stimulated the endogenous activity up to a 1:2 Mg2+/activator molar ratio. The vaccinia virus-induced activity was highly dependent on AMP-PNP and was not detectable over underlying cellular activity in its absence. Determination of substrate kinetics with respect to CDP revealed a threefold-lower Km for the virus-induced enzyme as compared with the cellular enzyme. These data suggest, but do not prove, that a novel ribonucleotide reductase is expressed on infection by vaccinia virus.

Vaccinia virus induces ribonucleotide reductase in primate cells

Infection of monkey kidney (BSC-40) cells with vaccinia virus strain WR resulted in a marked increase in ribonucleoside diphosphate reductase (EC 1.17.4.1) activity as measured by CDP reduction in cell-free extracts. After a synchronous infection, increased activity was detected at 2 h, peaked at 4 to 5 h, and then declined between 6 and 8 h to the endogenous cellular level. The induction, detectable at 0.5 PFU/cell, correlated strongly with multiplicity of infection to 10 PFU/cell and continued to increase to 50 PFU/cell. It paralleled the previously described induction of viral DNA polymerase and thymidine kinase, suggesting that the reductase may also be a product of early transcription of the viral genome. The inhibition of DNA synthesis throughout infection resulted in prolonged accumulation of reductase activity and delayed and incomplete down-regulation at 8 h, suggesting that repression involves late functions. Rescue of fluorodeoxyuridine-inhibited DNA synthesis with exogenous thymidine restored the normal pattern. Preferential association of the induced reductase with the cytoplasmic sites of vaccinia virus DNA replication (virosomes) was not detected. The induced enzyme is similar in several respects to other eucaryotic ribonucleotide reductases, but is distinct from host cell reductase in response to certain modulators of reductase activity (M. B. Slabaugh and Christopher K. Mathews, J. Virol. 52:501-506, 1984). Full activity required an activator, exogenous reducing equivalents, and iron. Hydroxyurea, EDTA, dATP, and dTTP inhibited CDP reduction, setting this reductase apart from T4 reductase, which is not inhibited by dATP, and from herpesvirus reductase, which requires no activation and is insensitive to deoxyribonucleoside triphosphate inhibition.

Translation of vaccinia virus and cellular mRNA in cell-free systems prepared from uninfected and vaccinia virus infected L929 cells

Cell-free translation systems were prepared from uninfected and vaccinia infected (3 and 5 hours post-infection) L929 cells. The systems were made mRNA dependent in order to translate exogenous mRNA mixtures. The overall rate of protein synthesis was similar in the three translation systems. However, one-dimensional electrophoresis showed that the systems differed in terms of the translation efficiency for individual mRNAs. This could be demonstrated with each of the following mRNA mixtures: early vaccinia mRNA synthesized by vaccinia cores in vitro, mRNA isolated from polysomes of vaccinia infected HeLa cells ("late" vaccinia mRNA) and cytoplasmic ascites mRNA. When the above mentioned groups of mRNAs were allowed to compete for translation in the cell-free systems and their products were analyzed on one-dimensional gels, the following order of translational efficiency was observed: the most prominent species of vaccinia early mRNA (other species could not be judged) were translated better than some late vaccinia mRNA species which in turn were slightly more efficiently translated than cellular mRNAs.

Mapping and identification of the vaccinia virus thymidine kinase gene

The thymidine kinase gene of vaccinia virus (VV) was mapped on the viral genome by using cloned fragments of the viral DNA to hybridize to early viral mRNA. Individual DNA fragments that represented about half of the viral genome were assayed, both for their ability to arrest the cell-free synthesis of active VV thymidine kinase and for their ability to select functional mRNA for the viral enzyme. Both activities were located in HindIII fragment J, which maps near the middle of VV DNA and contains about 2.6% of the genome (4,800 base pairs). This DNA fragment encodes four known early polypeptides, and to determine which of these was thymidine kinase, early VV mRNA was fractionated by sucrose gradient centrifugation and used to direct cell-free synthesis of the active enzyme. The thymidine kinase mRNA cosedimented with several species that encoded polypeptides in the molecular weight range 15,000 to 25,000. Hybridization of these mRNAs to HindIII-J DNA selected a message that directed the synthesis of thymidine kinase and a single polypeptide with an apparent molecular weight of 19,000. The native molecular weight of VV thymidine kinase is about 80,000, so these data indicate that, unlike thymidine kinase from several other sources, the active VV enzyme is probably a tetramer of 19,000-molecular-weight subunits.

Control of expression of the vaccinia virus thymidine kinase gene

mRNA extracted from vaccinia virus-infected cells early after infection directs cell-free synthesis of enzymatically active viral thymidine kinase (Hruby and Ball, Virology, in press). We used this assay for a specific vaccinia virus mRNA to study the induction and repression of the viral thymidine kinase gene during infection of thymidine kinase-deficient L-cells. As observed previously by other workers, the synthesis of thymidine kinase occurred immediately after infection but was switched off after 4 h later. We observed similar kinetics of accumulation and shutoff under conditions where viral DNA synthesis and late gene expression were inhibited. Cell-free translation of mRNA from infected cells showed that the concentration of functional message for viral thymidine kinase reached a peak 3 to 4 h after infection and then decreased with a half-life of about 1 h. These kinetics indicated that significant levels of thymidine kinase mRNA persisted in cells which had stopped synthesizing the enzyme. Under conditions where late gene expression was inhibited, high concentrations of functional mRNA could be isolated from cells at late times after infection. On the basis of these results, we conclude that the repression of thymidine kinase expression is mediated at the translational level by one or more early or delayed early viral genes. Repression is accompanied by, but does not depend on, the inactivation or degradation of thymidine kinase mRNA, which is a late gene function.

Further studies on a vaccinia virus cytotoxin present in infected cell extracts: identification as surface tubule monomer and possible mode of action

A vaccinia virus-specific cytotoxic protein (3--10 X 10(4) daltons) had previously been detected in extracts of infected HeLa cells. In this study the protein has been shown to be a late gene product and a virion component--almost certainly the monomer of the surface tubules of the vaccinia virion. The relationship of this cytotoxin to a number of early vaccinia-induced cytopathic effects was examined: it was not the mediator of vaccinia-induced early cell rounding, did not inhibit protein or RNA synthesis in cell-free systems or intact cells (after uptake-induction by hypertonic MgSO4), or cause the release of beta-glucuronidase from a crude preparation of HeLa cell lysosomes. Its possible role in vaccinia-induced cell degeneration, late in infection, is discussed.

Failure of poxvirus replication in the presence of an inhibitor of nucleolar RNA synthesis

In vaccinia virus infected cells the appearance of a late enzyme RNA polymerase was prevented by MPB, an inhibitor of nucleolar RNA synthesis, although inductions of the early enzymes thymidine kinase and DNA polymerase were not affected. It is inferred the nucleoli may be involved in the replication of vaccinia virus.

Regulation of synthesis of two immunologically distinct nucleic acid-dependent nucleoside triphosphate phosphohydrolases in vaccinia virus-infected HeLa cells

The two nucleic acid-dependent nucleoside triphosphate phosphohydrolases, previously purified from vaccinia virus cores, were shown to be immunologically distinct enzymes. Antiserum prepared against purified phosphohydrolase I and antiserum prepared against purified phosphohydrolase II only neutralized the activity of that enzyme used as antigen. Both enzymes were induced in HeLa cells after vaccinia infection. DNA-cellulose chromatography was used to purify the two phosphohydrolases from the cytoplasms of infected cells. The enzymes were identified by their different substrate specificities, nucleic acid dependence, and neutralization with specific antiserum. A third chromatographically separable nucleic acid-dependent phosphohydrolase similar to phosphohydrolase I in substrate specificity but not neutralizable by antiserum to either phosphohydrolase I or II, was also isolated from infected cells. No nucleic acid-dependent nucleoside triphosphate phosphohydrolase activity was detected by similar methods from uninfected HeLa cells. Formation of these virus-induced enzymes was prevented by actinomycin D and cycloheximide, indicating a requirement for de novo RNA and protein synthesis, respectively. The kinetics of induction and inhibition by cytosine arabinoside, an inhibitor of DNA synthesis, suggested that synthesis of the phosphohydrolases is a late viral function. Rifampin, an inhibitor of vaccinia virus growth which prevents virion assembly, had no inhibitory effect on the induction of the phosphohydrolases. This result was consistent with the finding that these enzymes exist in a soluble as well as in a particulate form in the cytoplasm of infected cells. Addition of another specific anti-poxviral drug, isatin-beta-thiosemicarbazone, to vaccinia-infected cells partially inhibited induction of the phosphohydrolases.

How do viruses multiply?

This review article describes the mechanism of multiplication of viruses. Virus infection of mammalian cells proceeds in 4 main stages, adsorption of the virus to the host cell followed by penetration, pre-emption of the synthetic machinery of the cell by the virus, synthesis of viral macromolecular components under the direction of the viral genome, and assembly of viral components to produce mature virus progeny.

Studies on vaccinia virus-directed deoxyribonucleic acid polymerase

A vaccinia-directed deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) polymerase has been partially purified from the cytoplasmic fractions of virus-infected HeLa cells. The utilization of natural and synthetic templates by this enzyme resembles that of the host cell DNA-dependent DNA polymerases. The vaccinia DNA polymerase cannot copy ribopolymers or ribonucleic acid but is very effective with an "activated" DNA as template. An exonuclease preferring single-stranded DNA as substrate is found in the most highly purified preparations of the enzyme. The molecular weight of the vaccinia DNA polymerase seems to be about 110,000. The viral DNA polymerase is also found to be associated with purified, infected cell nuclei, and this association may be due, at least in part, to nonspecific adsorption of the vaccinia DNA polymerase by nuclei.

Iodine-125-labeled antibody to viral antigens: binding to the surface of virus-infected cells

The specific binding of iodine-125-labeled antibody to viral antigens can be used to detect newly synthesized viral antigens and determine the time of appearance of these antigens on the surface of infected cells. Incubation of infected cells with unlabeled antibody to viral antigens specifically blocks the attachment of labeled antibody, and by this inhibition technique the titer of unlabeled antibody to viral antigens can be calculated. The attachment of the labeled antibody to virus-infected cells offers an objective and sensitive method of detecting viral antigens and measuring antibody to virus.

Mechanism of inhibition of vaccinia virus replication in adenovirus-infected HeLa cells

The ability of vaccinia virus to replicate in HeLa cells which had been previously infected with adenovirus type 2 (Ad2) was studied in order to gain insight into the mechanism by which adenovirus inhibits the expression of host cell functions. Vaccinia virus was employed in these studies because it replicates in the cytoplasm, whereas Ad2 replicates in the nucleus of the cell. It was found that vaccinia deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) synthesis is greatly inhibited in adeno-preinfected HeLa cells provided that vaccinia superinfection does not occur before 18 hr after adeno infection. The inhibition of vaccinia DNA synthesis can be traced to an inhibition of vaccinia protein synthesis and viral uncoating. Vaccinia ribonucleic acid (RNA) synthesis is not inhibited in adeno-preinfected cells, but the vaccinia RNA does not become associated with polysomes.

Vaccinia virus structural polypeptide derived from a high-molecular-weight precursor: formation and integration into virus particles

Polypeptide 4a, a major vaccinia structural polypeptide which was previously shown to form from a high-molecular-weight precursor is made after the period of viral deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) synthesis. Pulse-chase experiments demonstrated that a period of 1 to 2 hr is required for a 50% conversion of precursor to product. The rates of incorporation of polypeptides into virus particles were examined. The kinetics of incorporation of labeled 4a and other major structural polypeptides into virus particles were similar, despite the additional time required for the formation of 4a from its precursor. Furthermore, 4a was present exclusively in a particulate form at all times examined. Both observations suggested that cleavage of the precursor occurs after, or immediately prior to, association with developing virus particles. Polypeptide P4a was previously identified as the probable precursor of 4a and is not ordinarily found in detectable amounts in virus particles. Under conditions in which breakdown of P4a was inhibited by adding rifampin or amino acid analogues after the period of viral DNA synthesis, isolated virus particles contained significant amounts of this polypeptide. Further analysis showed that P4a was localized within the virus core, which is also the site of 4a. Synchronization of virus assembly after the removal of rifampin was shown to be useful for studying the integration of polypeptides into a particulate fraction of the cytoplasm.