Cytoskeleton-associated Pr65gag and retrovirus assembly

Differential effects of actin cytoskeleton dynamics on equine infectious anemia virus particle production

Retrovirus assembly and budding involve a highly dynamic and concerted interaction of viral and cellular proteins. Previous studies have shown that retroviral Gag proteins interact with actin filaments, but the significance of these interactions remains to be defined. Using equine infectious anemia virus (EIAV), we now demonstrate differential effects of cellular actin dynamics at distinct stages of retrovirus assembly and budding. First, virion production was reduced when EIAV-infected cells were treated with phallacidin, a cell-permeable reagent that stabilizes actin filaments by slowing down their depolymerization. Confocal microscopy confirmed that the inhibition of EIAV production correlated temporally over several days with the incorporation dynamics of phallacidin into the actin cytoskeleton. Although the overall structure of the actin cytoskeleton and expression of viral protein appeared to be unaffected, phallacidin treatment dramatically reduced the amount of full-length Gag protein associated with the actin cytoskeleton. These data suggest that an association of full-length Gag proteins with de novo actin filaments might contribute to Gag assembly and budding. On the other hand, virion production was enhanced when EIAV-infected cells were incubated briefly (2 h) with the actin-depolymerizing drugs cytochalasin D and latrunculin B. Interestingly, the enhanced virion production induced by cytochalasin D required a functional late (L) domain, either the EIAV YPDL L-domain or the proline-rich L domains derived from human immunodeficiency virus type 1 or Rous sarcoma virus, respectively. Thus, depolymerization of actin filaments may be a common function mediated by retrovirus L domains during late stages of viral budding. Taken together, these observations indicate that dynamic actin polymerization and depolymerization may be associated with different stages of viral production.

Intracellular localisation of Fv1

Retroviral resistance mediated by the murine Fv1 gene is believed to result from a direct interaction between the Fv1 gene product and the viral capsid protein. To study the mechanism of Fv1 action, the expression and intracellular localisation of the Fv1 protein were examined. Only very low levels of protein expression seem necessary for virus restriction but the site of expression appears crucial. Active Fv1 was found in association with tubules of the trans-Golgi network, whereas an inactive form was localised in the endoplasmic reticulum. We hypothesize that Fv1 is compartmentalised in the cell on the pathway taken by virus en route to the nucleus, suggesting that incoming virus must pass the trans-Golgi network during its transit to the nucleus.

The double-stranded RNA-binding protein Staufen is incorporated in human immunodeficiency virus type 1: evidence for a role in genomic RNA encapsidation

Human Staufen (hStau), a double-stranded RNA (dsRNA)-binding protein that is involved in mRNA transport, is incorporated in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) and in other retroviruses, including HIV-2 and Moloney murine leukemia virus. Sucrose and Optiprep gradient analyses reveal cosedimentation of hStau with purified HIV-1, while subtilisin assays demonstrate that it is internalized. hStau incorporation in HIV-1 is selective, is dependent on an intact functional dsRNA-binding domain, and quantitatively correlates with levels of encapsidated HIV-1 genomic RNA. By coimmunoprecipitation and reverse transcription-PCR analyses, we demonstrate that hStau is associated with HIV-1 genomic RNA in HIV-1-expressing cells and purified virus. Overexpression of hStau enhances virion incorporation levels, and a corresponding, threefold increase in HIV-1 genomic RNA encapsidation levels. This coordinated increase in hStau and genomic RNA packaging had a significant negative effect on viral infectivity. This study is the first to describe hStau within HIV-1 particles and provides evidence that hStau binds HIV-1 genomic RNA, indicating that it may be implicated in retroviral genome selection and packaging into assembling virions.

Cellular motor protein KIF-4 associates with retroviral Gag

Previously we demonstrated that murine retroviral Gag proteins associate with a cellular motor protein, KIF-4. Using the yeast two-hybrid assay, we also found an association of KIF-4 with Gag proteins of Mason-Pfizer monkey virus (MPMV), simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV), and human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1). Studies performed with mammalian cell systems confirmed that the HIV-1 Gag protein associates with KIF-4. Soluble cytoplasmic proteins from cells infected with recombinant vaccinia virus expressing the entire Gag-Pol precursor protein of HIV-1 or transfected with HIV-1 molecular clone pNL4-3 were fractionated by sucrose gradient centrifugation and further separated by size-exclusion and anion-exchange chromatographies. KIF-4 and HIV-1 Gag cofractionated in both chromatographic separations. Immunoprecipitation assays have also verified the KIF-4-Gag association. KIF-4 binds mainly to the Gag precursor (Pr55 Gag) and a matrix-capsid processing intermediate (Pr42) but not to other processed Gag products. The binding of Gag is mediated by a domain of KIF-4 proximal to the C terminus. These results, and our previous studies, raise the possibility that KIF-4 may play an important role in retrovirus Gag protein transport.

Identification of a cytoplasmic targeting/retention signal in a retroviral Gag polyprotein

Retroviral capsid assembly can occur by either of two distinct morphogenic processes: in type C viruses, the capsid assembles and buds at the plasma membrane, while in type B and D viruses, the capsid assembles within the cytoplasm and is then transported to the plasma membrane for budding. We have previously reported that a single-amino-acid substitution of a tryptophan for an arginine in the matrix protein (MA) of Mason-Pfizer monkey virus (MPMV) converts its capsid assembly from that of a type D retrovirus to that of the type C viruses (S. S. Rhee and E. Hunter, Cell 63:77-86, 1990). Here we identify a region of 18 amino acids within the MA of MPMV that is responsible for type D-specific morphogenesis. Insertion of these 18 amino acids into the MA of type C Moloney murine leukemia virus causes it to assemble an immature capsid in the cytoplasm. Furthermore, fusion of the MPMV MA to the green fluorescent protein resulted in altered intracellular targeting and a punctate accumulation of the fusion protein in the cytoplasm. These 18 amino acids, which are necessary and sufficient to target retroviral Gag polyproteins to defined sites in the cytoplasm, appear to define a novel mammalian cytoplasmic targeting/retention signal.

Vif and the p55(Gag) polyprotein of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 are present in colocalizing membrane-free cytoplasmic complexes

The Vif protein of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) is a potent regulator of viral infectivity. Current data posit that Vif functions late in replication to modulate assembly, budding, and/or maturation. Consistent with this model, earlier indirect immunofluorescence analyses of HIV-1-infected cells demonstrated that Vif and Gag colocalize to a substantial degree (J. H. M. Simon, R. A. M. Fouchier, T. E. Southerling, C. B. Guerra, C. K. Grant, and M. H. Malim, J. Virol. 71:5259-5267, 1997). Here, we describe a series of subcellular fractionation studies which indicate that Vif and the p55(Gag) polyprotein are present in membrane-free cytoplasmic complexes that copurify in sucrose density gradients and are stable in nonionic detergents. Both Vif and Gag are targeted to these complexes independent of each other, and their association with them appears to be mediated by protein-protein interactions. We propose that these complexes may represent viral assembly intermediates and that Vif is appropriately localized to influence the final stages of the viral life cycle and, therefore, the infectivity of progeny virions.

Actin associates with the nucleocapsid domain of the human immunodeficiency virus Gag polyprotein

Recently, it was shown that actin molecules are present in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) particles. We have examined the basis for incorporation and the location of actin molecules within HIV-1 and murine retrovirus particles. Our results show that the retroviral Gag polyprotein is sufficient for actin uptake. Immunolabeling studies demonstrate that actin molecules localize to a specific radial position within the immature particle, clearly displaced from the matrix domain underneath the viral membrane but in proximity to the nucleocapsid (NC) domain of the Gag polyprotein. When virus or subviral Gag particles were disrupted with nonionic detergent, actin molecules remained associated with the disrupted particles. Actin molecules remained in a stable complex with the NC cleavage product (or an NC-RNA complex) after treatment of the disrupted HIV-1 particles with recombinant HIV-1 protease. In contrast, matrix and capsid molecules were released. The same result was obtained when mature HIV-1 particles were disrupted with detergent. Taken together, these results indicate that actin molecules are associated with the NC domain of the viral polyprotein.

Role of matrix in an early postentry step in the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 life cycle

The matrix protein of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) has been reported to play a crucial role in the targeting of the Gag polyprotein precursor to the plasma membrane and in the incorporation of viral envelope glycoproteins into budding virions. In this report, we present evidence that mutation of a highly conserved Leu at matrix amino acid 20 blocks or markedly delays virus replication in a range of cell types, including T-cell lines, primary human peripheral blood mononuclear cells, and monocyte-derived macrophages. These mutations do not impair virus assembly and release, RNA encapsidation, or envelope glycoprotein incorporation into virions but rather cause significant defects in an early step in the virus life cycle, as measured by single-cycle infectivity assays and the analysis of viral DNA synthesis early postinfection. This infectivity defect is independent of the type of envelope glycoprotein carried on mutant virions; similar results are obtained in pseudotyping experiments using wild-type or truncated HIV-1 envelope glycoproteins, the amphotropic murine leukemia virus envelope, or the vesicular stomatitis G protein. Intriguingly, matrix residue 20 mutations also increase the apparent binding of Gag to membrane, accelerate the kinetics of Gag processing, and induce defects in endogenous reverse transcriptase activity without affecting virion density or morphology. These results help elucidate the function of matrix in HIV-1 replication.

Type D retrovirus capsid assembly and release are active events requiring ATP

Mason-Pfizer monkey virus (M-PMV), the prototype type D retrovirus, differs from most other retroviruses by assembling its Gag polyproteins into procapsids in the cytoplasm of infected cells. Once assembled, the procapsids migrate to the plasma membrane, where they acquire their envelope during budding. Because the processes of M-PMV protein transport, procapsid assembly, and budding are temporally and spatially unlinked, we have been able to determine whether cellular proteins play an active role during the different stages of procapsid morphogenesis. We report here that at least two stages of morphogenesis require ATP. Both procapsid assembly and procapsid transport to the plasma membrane were reversibly blocked by treating infected cells with sodium azide and 2-deoxy-D-glucose, which we show rapidly and reversibly depletes cellular ATP pools. Assembly of procapsids in vitro in a cell-free translation/assembly system was inhibited by the addition of nonhydrolyzable ATP analogs, suggesting that ATP hydrolysis and not just ATP binding is required. Since retrovirus Gag polyproteins do not bind or hydrolyze ATP, these results demonstrate that cellular components must play an active role during retrovirus morphogenesis.

A rapid indirect ELISA for the serogrouping of Australian orbiviruses

This communication describes the development and evaluation of a simple and rapid method for the classification of Australian orbiviruses into one of seven established serogroups (i.e. bluetongue, epizootic haemorrhagic disease of deer, Palyam, Eubenangee, Corriparta, Wallal, Warrego) or an 'ungrouped' category. The Australian orbivirus serogrouping ELISA (SG-ELISA) utilised a sodium deoxycholate-treated cell lysate preparation from infected BHK cells which was subsequently probed in an indirect ELISA format with polyclonal antibodies representative of each serogroup. Bound immunoglobulin was detected by the use of a recombinant streptococcal protein G-HRPO conjugate and subsequent reaction with the chromogenic substrate. All reference orbiviruses tested in the SG-ELISA were identified and were in agreement with the serogroups originally designated. Minimal inter-serogroup cross-reactions were observed. One-way cross-reactions were observed between Warrego and Mitchell River viruses.

Assembly and composition of intracellular particles formed by Moloney murine leukemia virus

Assembly of type C retroviruses such as Moloney murine leukemia virus (M-MuLV) ordinarily occurs at the plasma membranes of infected cells and absolutely requires the particle core precursor protein, Pr65gag. Previously we have shown that Pr65gag is membrane associated and that at least a portion of intracellular Pr65gag protein appears to be routed to the plasma membrane by a vesicular transport pathway. Here we show that intracellular particle formation can occur in M-MuLV-infected cells. M-MuLV immature particles were observed by electron microscopy budding into and within rough endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi, and vacuolar compartments. Biochemical fractionation studies indicated that intracellular Pr65gag was present in nonionic detergent-resistant complexes of greater than 150S. Additionally, viral RNA and polymerase functions appeared to be associated with intracellular particles, as were Gag-beta-galactosidase fusion proteins which have the capacity to be incorporated into virions. Immature intracellular particles in postnuclear lysates could be proteolytically processed in vitro to mature forms, while extracellular immature M-MuLV particles remained immature as long as 10 h during incubations. The occurrence of M-MuLV-derived intracellular particles demonstrates that Pr65gag can associate with intracellular membranes and indicates that if a plasma membrane Pr65gag receptor exists, it also can be found in other membrane compartments. These results support the hypothesis that intracellular particles may serve as a virus reservoir during in vivo infections.

Mutants of murine leukemia viruses and retroviral replication

The analysis of retroviral mutants has played a critical role in the development of our understanding of the complex viral life cycle. The most fundamental result of that analysis has been the definition of the replication functions encoded by the viruses. From a biochemical examination of a particular step in the life cycle it is difficult to determine, for example, whether that step is catalyzed by a viral or a host enzyme; but the isolation of a viral mutant defective in that step can firmly establish that a viral function is involved. In this way many facts about the viruses have been established. We know that reverse transcriptase is encoded by the virus; that RNAase H and DNA polymerase activities reside on the same gene product; that processing of many precursor proteins is mediated by a viral proteinase; and that establishment of the integrated provirus requires a viral protein. The list of functions mediated by viral enzymes has largely been defined by the mutants isolated and studied in various laboratories. The second significant result of the studies of viral mutants has been the assignation of the replication functions to particular viral genes, and then more specifically to particular domains of these genes. Mutants and viral variants have been essential in the determination, for example, that the gag protein is the critical gene product for the assembly of a virion particle; that the env protein is the determinant of species specificity of infection; or that the LTR is a major determinant of tissue tropism and leukemogenicity. The subdivisions of functions within a given gene have similarly hinged on mutants. Genetic mapping was needed to establish that P30 is the most important region for assembly; that the proteinase and integrase functions reside, respectively, in the 5' and 3' portions of the pol gene; and that the glycosylated gag protein is dispensable for replication. A third important area of knowledge has depended heavily on viral mutants: the determination of host functions and proteins that interact with viral proteins. Variant viruses with altered or restricted host ranges serve to define differences between pairs of different host cells, and the mapping of the viral mutations serves to define the viral protein important in that interaction with the host. These studies are only in their infancy, but it is clear that substantial efforts will be made to further analyze these host functions.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Role of cell cytoskeleton in Mo-MuLV env transport and processing: implications in ts1 neuropathology

Treatment of Mo-MuLV-infected cells with cytochalasin B (CB), a microfilament disrupting drug, caused a reduction in virus yield as judged by infectivity assay and reverse transcriptase activity. Pulse-chase experiments with [3H]leucine showed that the env precursor, gPr80env, was inefficiently processed in cells treated with CB. In the presence of monensin, an inhibitor of glycoprotein transport, gPr80env accumulated intracellularly and no gp70 was observed on the cell surface, indicating a complete block in the processing of gPr80env. Pulse-chase studies also showed that gPr80env was not processed in the presence of monensin. SDS-PAGE analysis of TX-100-extracted cell cytoskeletons (TX-insoluble fraction) iodinated and immunoprecipitated with goat anti-gp70 antiserum showed that CB or monensin treatment caused a marked increase of gPr80env in the cytoskeleton-rich fraction. However, the amount of gPr80env associated with the TX-soluble fraction in both CB or monensin-treated and untreated cells labeled with [3H]leucine was about the same. The gPr80env in the TX-100-soluble fraction of the cell was the endoglycosidase H (Endo-H) sensitive mannose-rich form, whereas the cytoskeleton-associated gPr80env was the partially Endo-H-resistant complex carbohydrate form. In the presence of CB or monensin, the complex carbohydrate form of gPr80env accumulated in the cytoskeleton-rich cell fraction. Examination of Mo-MuLV ts1 mutant, which is defective in the processing of env precursor polyprotein, also revealed an accumulation of the complex carbohydrate form of gPr80env in the cytoskeleton-rich fraction and an absence of gp70 on the surface of the cell at the restrictive temperature (39 degrees C). These studies suggest that the cytoskeleton plays a role in the transport and processing of MuLV gPr80env and that oligosaccharide conversion is an important factor in this process. Further, the accumulation of gPr80env on the cytoskeleton of ts1 infected cells at restrictive temperature may play a role in the neurological disorder caused by Mo-MuLV ts1 mutant.

Cytoskeleton-associated Pr65gag and assembly of retrovirus temperature-sensitive mutants in chronically infected cells

Certain temperature-sensitive (ts) mutants of murine leukemia virus (MuLV) were observed to be defective in virus assembly. These mutants also accumulated intracellular core protein precursor, Pr65gag, at 39 degrees, the nonpermissive temperature. At 39 degrees, virions released from cells infected with the various ts mutants also contained elevated levels of Pr65gag relative to virions released at 33 degrees, the permissive temperature. Detergent extraction of pulse-labeled cells with Nonidet P-40 (NP-40) generated an NP-40-insoluble cytoskeleton-enriched fraction. Reextraction of this fraction with deoxycholate followed by gel electrophoresis of solubilized, immunoprecipitated viral proteins showed that in Moloney MuLV (Mo-MuLV) ts3-infected cells, and in Rauscher MuLV (R-MuLV) ts17- and ts24-infected cells, increased amounts of intracellular viral Pr65gag rapidly become associated with the cytoskeleton-enriched fraction during pulse labeling at nonpermissive temperature. Furthermore, examination of cell extracts from chase-incubated cells infected with these ts mutants revealed that Pr65gag accumulated in the cytoskeleton-enriched fraction at 39 degrees but not at 33 degrees. During steady-state labeling, as much as half of the intracellular Pr65gag becomes associated with the cytoskeleton-enriched fraction (i.e., is not solubilized by NP-40) at 39 degrees. At permissive temperature only 10-15% of the intracellular Pr65gag is cytoskeleton associated. In contrast, cells infected with R-MuLV ts25 or ts26 showed little or no preferential localization of Pr65gag in the cytoskeleton-enriched cell fraction during a short pulse at 39 degrees, but Pr65gag accumulated in both the NP-40-soluble and -insoluble fractions during a chase incubation relative to the condition at 33 degrees. Based upon these and previous results (Edbauer and Naso, 1983), models for retrovirus assembly are described in which the association of Pr65gag with the cell membrane and cytoskeleton plays a critical role in virus assembly, budding, and postbudding maturation.