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Bica BERG, de Souza AWS, Pereira IA. Unveiling the clinical spectrum of relapsing polychondritis: insights into its pathogenesis, novel monogenic causes, and therapeutic strategies. Adv Rheumatol 2024; 64:29. [PMID: 38627861 DOI: 10.1186/s42358-024-00365-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2024] [Accepted: 03/21/2024] [Indexed: 04/19/2024] Open
Abstract
Relapsing polychondritis is a rare multisystem disease involving cartilaginous and proteoglycan-rich structures. The diagnosis of this disease is mainly suggested by the presence of flares of inflammation of the cartilage, particularly in the ears, nose or respiratory tract, and more rarely, in the presence of other manifestations. The spectrum of clinical presentations may vary from intermittent episodes of painful and often disfiguring auricular and nasal chondritis to an occasional organ or even life-threatening manifestations such as lower airway collapse. There is a lack of awareness about this disease is mainly due to its rarity. In 2020, VEXAS (vacuoles, E1 enzyme, X-linked, autoinflammatory, somatic) syndrome, a novel autoinflammatory syndrome, was described. VEXAS syndrome is attributed to somatic mutations in methionine-41 of UBA1, the major E1 enzyme that initiates ubiquitylation. This new disease entity connects seemingly unrelated conditions: systemic inflammatory syndromes (relapsing chondritis, Sweet's syndrome, and neutrophilic dermatosis) and hematologic disorders (myelodysplastic syndrome or multiple myeloma). Therefore, this article reviews the current literature on both disease entities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Blanca E R G Bica
- Reumatology Division of Hospital Universitário Clementino Fraga Filho (HUCFF), Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rua Esteves Junior 62, CEP 22231-160, Laranjeiras, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil.
| | | | - Ivânio Alves Pereira
- Reumatologia da Universidade do Sul de Santa Catarina-UNISUL, Florian?polis, RJ, Brazil
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Relapsing Polychondritis: An Updated Review. Biomedicines 2018; 6:biomedicines6030084. [PMID: 30072598 PMCID: PMC6164217 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines6030084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2018] [Revised: 07/23/2018] [Accepted: 07/25/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Relapsing polychondritis is an immune-mediated systemic disease characterized by recurrent episodes of inflammation of cartilaginous and proteoglycan-rich tissues, resulting in progressive anatomical deformation and functional impairment of the involved structures. Auricular and nasal chondritis and/or polyarthritis represent the most common clinical features, but potentially all types of cartilage may be involved. Because of the pleomorphic nature of the disease, with non-specific symptoms at the onset, the diagnosis of relapsing polychondritis is often delayed. In this review article we provide a comprehensive look into clinical presentation, laboratory and instrumental investigations, diagnostic criteria, and therapeutic options.
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Emmungil H, Aydın SZ. Relapsing polychondritis. Eur J Rheumatol 2015; 2:155-159. [PMID: 27708954 DOI: 10.5152/eurjrheum.2015.0036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2015] [Accepted: 06/25/2015] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Relapsing polychondritis (RPC) is a unique and rarely observed autoimmune condition regarded as recurrent extensive chondritis of the auricular, nasal, and tracheal cartilages. Moreover, heart, main arteries, skin, and eyes may be involved. Several forms of clinical manifestations may be seen, and the pathogenesis still remains anonymous. A concomitant disease, particularly myelodysplasia or other systemic autoimmune disease can be detected in one-third of the patients with RPC. The treatment of RPC should be considered on personal basis and classified according to disease activity and severity. This study reviews the available data on clinical manifestations, pathogenesis, diagnosis, and therapeutics of the RPC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hakan Emmungil
- Department of Rheumatology, Koç University Faculty of Medicine, İstanbul, Turkey
| | - Sibel Zehra Aydın
- Department of Rheumatology, Koç University Faculty of Medicine, İstanbul, Turkey
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Cantarini L, Vitale A, Brizi MG, Caso F, Frediani B, Punzi L, Galeazzi M, Rigante D. Diagnosis and classification of relapsing polychondritis. J Autoimmun 2014; 48-49:53-9. [PMID: 24461536 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaut.2014.01.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2013] [Accepted: 11/13/2013] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Relapsing polychondritis is a rare and potentially fatal autoimmune disease of unknown etiology, characterized by inflammation and destruction of different cartilaginous structures, including the ear, nose, larynx, trachea, bronchi, peripheral joints, eye, heart and skin, with high risk of misdiagnosis. The spectrum of clinical presentations is protean and may vary from intermittent episodes of painful and disfiguring auricular and nasal chondritis or polyarthritis to severe progressive multi-organ damage. A laryngotracheobronchial involvement appears in nearly half of patients and is complicated by local obstructions, which may be life-threatening. A highly medical specialized approach is required for diagnosis of relapsing polychondritis. This review comprehensively examines the literature related to the clinical sceneries of the disease and focuses on both diagnostic tools used in clinical studies and recent findings related to its etiopathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luca Cantarini
- Interdepartmental Research Center of Systemic Autoimmune and Autoinflammatory Diseases, Rheumatology Unit, Policlinico Le Scotte, University of Siena, Siena, Italy.
| | - Antonio Vitale
- Interdepartmental Research Center of Systemic Autoimmune and Autoinflammatory Diseases, Rheumatology Unit, Policlinico Le Scotte, University of Siena, Siena, Italy
| | - Maria Giuseppina Brizi
- Interdepartmental Research Center of Systemic Autoimmune and Autoinflammatory Diseases, Rheumatology Unit, Policlinico Le Scotte, University of Siena, Siena, Italy
| | - Francesco Caso
- Interdepartmental Research Center of Systemic Autoimmune and Autoinflammatory Diseases, Rheumatology Unit, Policlinico Le Scotte, University of Siena, Siena, Italy; Rheumatology Unit, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Bruno Frediani
- Interdepartmental Research Center of Systemic Autoimmune and Autoinflammatory Diseases, Rheumatology Unit, Policlinico Le Scotte, University of Siena, Siena, Italy
| | - Leonardo Punzi
- Rheumatology Unit, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Mauro Galeazzi
- Interdepartmental Research Center of Systemic Autoimmune and Autoinflammatory Diseases, Rheumatology Unit, Policlinico Le Scotte, University of Siena, Siena, Italy
| | - Donato Rigante
- Institute of Pediatrics, Università Cattolica Sacro Cuore, Rome, Italy
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Relapsing polychondritis: a review. Clin Rheumatol 2013; 32:1575-83. [DOI: 10.1007/s10067-013-2328-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2013] [Accepted: 06/26/2013] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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Belot A, Duquesne A, Job-Deslandre C, Costedoat-Chalumeau N, Boudjemaa S, Wechsler B, Cochat P, Piette JC, Cimaz R. Pediatric-onset relapsing polychondritis: case series and systematic review. J Pediatr 2010; 156:484-9. [PMID: 19880136 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpeds.2009.09.045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2009] [Revised: 07/22/2009] [Accepted: 09/16/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To study the pediatric presentation and evolution of relapsing polychondritis (RP), a rare inflammatory disease characterized by recurrent inflammation of cartilage. STUDY DESIGN We retrospectively collected data from 10 patients observed in 3 French hospitals for relapsing polychondritis, with an age at onset <18 years. We also analyzed 37 cases of pediatric-onset RP from a systematic review. RESULTS The mean age at first symptoms was 8.6 years, and the sex ratio was 6 male patients and 4 female patients. Children came to medical attention with joint pain, ocular inflammation, and chondritis. Outcomes included severe visual impairment, chronic destructive chondritis, and 1 death caused by aortic dilatation. Treatment mainly consisted of non-steroidal-anti-inflammatory drugs, corticosteroids, and immunosuppressants. Growth was normal in 7 examined patients. Systematic literature review also suggested a high number of tracheostomy in pediatric cases, but this was not confirmed in our series. CONCLUSION RP in childhood shares the main clinical features of its adult counterpart, including destructive chondritis and systemic symptoms, but unlike adults, children frequently have a family history of autoimmunity and infrequently have other associated autoimmune diseases. RP can be fatal; close screening for complications is mandatory. Growth does not appear to be impaired by cartilage inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandre Belot
- Service de néphrologie et rhumatologie pédiatrique, Hôpital Femme Mère Enfant, Hospices Civils de Lyon et Université de Lyon, Lyon, France.
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Tomashefski JF, Cagle PT, Farver CF, Fraire AE. Collagen Vascular Diseases and Disorders of Connective Tissue. DAIL AND HAMMAR’S PULMONARY PATHOLOGY 2008. [PMCID: PMC7120184 DOI: 10.1007/978-0-387-68792-6_20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
The collagen vascular diseases, also referred to as connective tissue diseases, are a diverse group of systemic inflammatory disorders thought to be immunologically mediated. The concept of collagen vascular disease began to take shape in the 1930s, when it was recognized that rheumatic fever and rheumatoid arthritis can affect connective tissues throughout the body.1,2 During the following decade, as conditions such as systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and scleroderma came to be viewed as systemic diseases of connective tissue, the terms diffuse connective disease and diffuse collagen disease were proposed.3,4 During the same period, the designation of diffuse vascular disease was proposed for diseases such as scleroderma, polymyositis, SLE, and polyarteritis nodosa, which featured widespread vascular involvement.5 With the realization that many of these entities can exhibit both systemic connective tissue manifestations and vascular abnormalities, the unifying designation of collagen vascular disease was introduced.6
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph F. Tomashefski
- grid.67105.350000000121643847Department of Pathology, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, OH USA ,grid.411931.f0000000100354528Department of Pathology, MetroHealth Medical Center, Cleveland, OH USA
| | - Philip T. Cagle
- grid.5386.8000000041936877XDepartment of Pathology, Weill Medical College of Cornell University, New York, NY ,grid.63368.380000000404450041Pulmonary Pathology, Department of Pathology, The Methodist Hospital, Houston, TX USA
| | - Carol F. Farver
- grid.239578.20000000106754725Pulmonary Pathology, Department of Anatomic Pathology, The Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Cleveland, OH USA
| | - Armando E. Fraire
- grid.168645.80000000107420364Department of Pathology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA USA
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Herrera I, Concha R, Molina EG, Schiff ER, Altman RD. Relapsing polychondritis, chronic hepatitis C virus infection, and mixed cryoglobulemia. Semin Arthritis Rheum 2004; 33:388-403. [PMID: 15190524 DOI: 10.1016/j.semarthrit.2003.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Review of relapsing polychondritis (RP) and its association to chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection and mixed cryoglobulinemia. METHODS A case of RP associated with HCV infection is reported. The English language medical and scientific literature was reviewed for RP, hepatitis C, and its relation to other connective tissue diseases from February 1966 to January 2003 using MEDLINE. RESULTS RP is an uncommon, multisystem disease of unknown etiology characterized by recurrent inflammation of cartilaginous and related tissues, being associated with other diseases in 30% to 35% of cases. HCV infection is a systemic illness with a propensity to trigger or exacerbate autoimmune disorders: eg, essential mixed cryoglobulinemia, membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis, and leukocytoclastic and systemic vasculitis. We could find no previous report of an association between RP with HCV and mixed cryoglobulinemia. Treatment with interferon gamma and ribavirin (IR) not only induced an undetectable viral load, but also resolved symptoms of RP. CONCLUSIONS We report a patient with RP, HCV, and mixed cryoglobulinemia. It is unknown if there is a cause-effect or chance relationship. Treatment with IR improved the symptoms of RP. It is not known whether the effects of IR were directly on the RP or suppressed RP indirectly through the actions on the viral load or active hepatitis.
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MESH Headings
- Aged
- Anti-Inflammatory Agents/therapeutic use
- Antiviral Agents/therapeutic use
- Cryoglobulinemia/drug therapy
- Cryoglobulinemia/immunology
- Female
- Hepatitis C, Chronic/complications
- Hepatitis C, Chronic/drug therapy
- Hepatitis C, Chronic/immunology
- Humans
- Interferons/therapeutic use
- Leukemia, Myeloid, Acute/complications
- Leukemia, Myeloid, Acute/therapy
- Polychondritis, Relapsing/complications
- Polychondritis, Relapsing/diagnosis
- Polychondritis, Relapsing/immunology
- Polychondritis, Relapsing/therapy
- Prednisone/therapeutic use
- Ribavirin/therapeutic use
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivonne Herrera
- Department of Medicine, University of Miami School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA
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Daou S, Mohseni-Zadeh M, Lesens O, Hansmann Y, Pasquali JL, Christmann D. Chondrite auriculaire et granulomatose de Wegener : une association rare mais sans doute non fortuite. Rev Med Interne 2004; 25:165-6. [PMID: 14744652 DOI: 10.1016/j.revmed.2003.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Gerber B, Crottaz M, von Tscharner C, Schärer V. Feline relapsing polychondritis: two cases and a review of the literature. J Feline Med Surg 2002; 4:189-94. [PMID: 12468311 DOI: 10.1053/jfms.2002.0170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Only 11 reports of cats with relapsing polychondritis (RPC) were found in the literature. We describe two additional cases and provide a review of the literature. Predominantly young to middle aged cats are affected (range 1.5 to 14.5 years, median 3 years). There is no sex predilection for feline RPC. In all cats with feline RPC, the ears were affected. The findings in one of our cases and one case in the literature raise the question if other organs such as the joints, the eyes or the heart may be involved in feline RPC. The histological lesions observed in biopsy samples of the ears were similar in all cats. Glucocorticoids were not effective in the treatment of RPC. Dapsone appeared to result in some clinical improvement but side effects were observed in one of four cats. Some cats improved without treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Gerber
- Clinic for Small Animal Internal Medicine, University of Zürich, Winterthurstrasse 260, 8057, Zürich, Switzerland
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Abstract
INTRODUCTION Nasal septal perforations are mainly due to trauma. Our review highlights systemic diseases leading to this disorder. CURRENT KNOWLEDGE AND KEY POINTS Various systemic diseases may be responsible of nasal septal perforation: Wegener's granulomatosis, systemic lupus erythematosus, antiphospholipid syndrome, sarcoidosis, cryoglobulinaemia. But, very few data are available about the frequency of septum nasal perforation in each disease. Clinical manifestations are numerous and not specific: obstruction, epistaxis, postnasal discharge, whistling, crusting. Asymptomatic forms are frequent. Biopsy of nasal septum is poorly useful for the diagnosis except when granuloma or vasculitis is found. Pathophysiologic mechanisms of nasal septal perforation are ischemic, infectious or inflammatory. FUTURE PROSPECTS AND PROJECTS Systemic disease may be suspected in unclear nasal septal perforation. More, in systemic disease, even when symptoms are absent, intranasal examination is required.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Vignes
- Service de médecine interne, hôpital de la Pitié-Salpétrière, 47-83, boulevard de l'Hôpital, 75013 Paris, France
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Letko E, Zafirakis P, Baltatzis S, Voudouri A, Livir-Rallatos C, Foster CS. Relapsing polychondritis: a clinical review. Semin Arthritis Rheum 2002; 31:384-95. [PMID: 12077711 DOI: 10.1053/sarh.2002.32586] [Citation(s) in RCA: 140] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE This study comprehensively reviews the literature related to relapsing polychondritis (RP). METHODS A detailed search via MEDLINE (PubMed) was performed using relapsing polychondritis as the key term. Relevant articles were analyzed with a focus on history, epidemiology, etiology, pathogenesis, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis of RP. RESULTS RP is a rare episodic and progressive inflammatory disease of presumed autoimmune etiology first described in 1923. RP affects cartilage in multiple organs, such as the ear, nose, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and joints. In addition, it can affect proteoglycan-rich tissues, such as the eyes, aorta, heart, and skin. The diagnosis of RP is based on the presence of clinical criteria. A standardized therapeutic protocol for RP has not been established. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, dapsone and/or colchicine, may control disease activity in some patients. In other patients, immunosuppressive drugs and prednisone have been effective. RP is a potentially lethal disease; pulmonary infection, systemic vasculitis, airway collapse, and renal failure are the most common causes of death. Earlier studies indicate survival rates between 70% at 4 years and 55% at 10 years. In a recent study, a survival rate of 94% at 8 years may be due to improved medical and surgical management. CONCLUSIONS RP is a rare, multisystemic, and potentially fatal disease. The pathogenesis and optimal therapeutic approach to patients with RP is poorly understood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erik Letko
- Uveitis and Immunology Service, Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA
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Abstract
BACKGROUND Relapsing polychondritis (RPC) is a rare, chronic, and potentially fatal multisystemic inflammatory disorder targeting cartilaginous structures. This disorder is frequently associated with rheumatoid arthritis, systemic vasculitis, connective tissue diseases, and/or hematologic disorders. RPC afflicts patients with recurrent and often progressive episodes of inflammation with the potential for destruction of the affected structures. Tissues involved include the ears, joints, nose, larynx, trachea, eyes, heart valves, kidneys,and skin. Ocular manifestations commonly include episcleritis, scleritis, conjunctivitis, iridocyclitis, chorioretinitis, and proptosis. Lid edema, orbital inflammation, muscle palsies, and corneal melting may also occur. CASE REPORT An 83-year-old man previously diagnosed with RPC presented to our clinic with acute unilateral chemosis, conjunctivitis, lid edema, proptosis, and extraocular muscle restriction. After orbital cellulitis was ruled out, further evaluation revealed posterior scleritis with choroidal detachment OS. A course of oral indomethacin and topical antibiotic-steroid combination drops was implemented in the treatment of the ocular manifestations. The quick positive response to the anti-inflammatory agents confirmed the diagnosis of ocular complications secondary to RPC. DISCUSSION The presenting ocular signs and symptoms of RPC often resemble other commonly encountered ocular conditions. It is important for the eye care practitioner to be familiar with the ocular manifestations of RPC because the eyes are sometimes the initial site of involvement and may be a marker of severity. Early diagnosis and intervention may significantly improve the patient's outcome. This case report with literature review will hopefully bring to light features of this disease which will help the eye care practitioner in the diagnosis and management of this condition.
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Affiliation(s)
- M T Chow
- VA Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, Sepulveda Ambulatory Care Center and Southern California College of Optometry, Fullerton, USA
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Heman-Ackah YD, Remley KB, Goding GS. A new role for magnetic resonance imaging in the diagnosis of laryngeal relapsing polychondritis. Head Neck 1999; 21:484-9. [PMID: 10402531 DOI: 10.1002/(sici)1097-0347(199908)21:5<484::aid-hed16>3.0.co;2-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Relapsing polychondritis involving the upper airway is a rare cause of airflow obstruction and hoarseness. The diagnosis of relapsing polychondritis depends on clinical signs, characteristic findings on cartilage biopsy, and response to treatment. Delays in diagnosis and treatment can increase the morbidity and mortality of the disease. METHODS We present a case report of primary laryngeal relapsing polychondritis. RESULTS Serologic testing, direct laryngoscopy, and endoscopic biopsy could not establish the diagnosis of relapsing polychondritis. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) examination demonstrated findings consistent with the histopathological diagnosis obtained on open biopsy. Follow-up MRI after treatment showed resolution of the initial findings. CONCLUSION This case demonstrates the usefulness of MRI in the diagnosis and management of relapsing polychondritis involving the upper airway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y D Heman-Ackah
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, University of Minnesota, Box 396 Mayo Memorial Building, 420 Delaware Street, SE, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
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Tillie-Leblond I, Wallaert B, Leblond D, Salez F, Perez T, Remy-Jardin M, Vanhille P, Brouillard M, Marquette C, Tonnel AB. Respiratory involvement in relapsing polychondritis. Clinical, functional, endoscopic, and radiographic evaluations. Medicine (Baltimore) 1998; 77:168-76. [PMID: 9653428 DOI: 10.1097/00005792-199805000-00002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Although respiratory involvement occurs in 50% of patients with relapsing polychondritis (RP) and augurs a poor prognosis, few previous studies have provided complete descriptions of respiratory tract involvement. For this reason, we investigated the respective role of clinical, functional, endoscopic, and radiographic (computed tomography [CT]) examinations in 9 consecutive patients with RP and lower respiratory tract localization. All exhibited cough, dyspnea, and wheezing. Eight had a nonreversible obstructive pattern with a marked decrease of the maximal flow ratio at 75% and 25% of vital capacity. Rotman functional criteria were evaluated to differentiate upper from lower respiratory tract involvement; they were consistent with the results of other examinations in 4/9 cases. Endoscopic examination showed moderate to severe inflammation in 8/9 patients; tracheal stenosis was present in 6/9 patients, bronchial stenosis in 4/9 patients, and tracheal collapse in 7 cases. CT showed tracheal stenosis in 8/9 patients (diffuse, 7; localized, 1) and bronchial stenosis in 6/9 patients. Tracheobronchial wall thickening and/or calcifications were observed in 7 cases. Clinical symptoms are of poor specificity for defining respiratory involvement precisely, although degree of dyspnea is correlated to the decrease in forced expiratory volume in 1 second (FEV1). Functional criteria were helpful in evaluating the obstructive ventilatory defect but did not differentiate, in most cases, the respective part of lower and upper respiratory involvement when using Rotman criteria. Compared to CT findings, endoscopic examination failed to identify tracheal and bronchial stenosis and tracheal wall alterations at an early stage of the disease. In our series CT appears to be a reliable method to identify tracheal and bronchial involvement and can be repeated safely during the course of the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- I Tillie-Leblond
- Clinique des Maladies Respiratoires, Hôpital Calmette, CHRU, Lille, France
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Papo T, Wechsler B, Bletry O, Piette AM, Godeau P, Piette JC. Pregnancy in relapsing polychondritis: Twenty-five pregnancies in eleven patients. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1997. [DOI: 10.1002/art.8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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Papo T, Wechsler B, Bletry O, Piette AM, Godeau P, Piette JC. Pregnancy in relapsing polychondritis. Twenty-five pregnancies in eleven patients. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1997. [DOI: 10.1002/art.1780400708] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Nashitz JE, Rosner I, Rozenbaum M, Elias N, Yeshurun D. Cancer-associated rheumatic disorders: clues to occult neoplasia. Semin Arthritis Rheum 1995; 24:231-41. [PMID: 7740303 DOI: 10.1016/s0049-0172(95)80033-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Interest in the rheumatologic manifestations of cancer is related in part to practical considerations, ie, earlier cancer diagnosis is possible through enhanced awareness of cancer-associated rheumatic syndromes. The spectrum of rheumatic disorders associated with cancer includes over 30 conditions, including hypertrophic osteoarthropathy, polymyalgia rheumatica, palmar fasciitis with polyarthritis, most autoimmune connective tissue diseases, and the more recently described antiphospholipid syndrome. It is generally held that extensive search for occult malignancy in most rheumatologic disorders is not cost efficient and not recommended unless accompanied by specific findings suggestive of malignancy. The present article discusses the supplementary findings that may justify malignancy evaluation.
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Affiliation(s)
- J E Nashitz
- Department of Internal Medicine A, Bnai Zion Medical Center, Haifa, Israel
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Lang B, Rothenfusser A, Lanchbury JS, Rauh G, Breedveld FC, Urlacher A, Albert ED, Peter HH, Melchers I. Susceptibility to relapsing polychondritis is associated with HLA-DR4. ARTHRITIS AND RHEUMATISM 1993; 36:660-4. [PMID: 8489544 DOI: 10.1002/art.1780360513] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To determine the frequency of HLA class II antigens in Caucasian central European patients with relapsing polychondritis (RP). METHODS HLA class I, DR, and DQ specificities were identified in 41 patients with RP, and the frequencies were compared with those in 204 healthy, unrelated control subjects. HLA typing was performed using the standard complement-dependent microcytotoxicity assay. HLA-DR genotyping of 12 DR4-positive RP patients and 57 controls was performed by allele-specific oligonucleotide probing after amplification of genomic DNA by polymerase chain reaction. RESULTS A significant increase in DR4 antigen frequency was found in the patients (56.1%) as compared with that in healthy controls (25.5%) (Pcorr < 0.001). Genotyping of DR4-positive patients and controls revealed no predominance of any DR4 subtype. CONCLUSION There are important clinical similarities and overlaps between RP and rheumatoid arthritis (RA). In RA, the association with DR4 has been well established. Our findings show that although there is a DR4 association with RP, the situation is sufficiently distinct from that of RA to imply considerable differences in pathogenesis of the two conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Lang
- Department of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, University of Freiburg Medical Center, Germany
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Van Besien K, Tricot G, Hoffman R. Relapsing polychondritis: a paraneoplastic syndrome associated with myelodysplastic syndromes. Am J Hematol 1992; 40:47-50. [PMID: 1340759 DOI: 10.1002/ajh.2830400110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
We report an unusual case of a patient with a myelodysplastic syndrome associated with life threatening relapsing polychondritis. The improvement in symptoms attributable to the relapsing polychondritis during treatment of the hematologic disorder suggests that relapsing polychondritis is a paraneoplastic syndrome associated with myelodysplastic syndromes.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Van Besien
- Division of Hematology/Oncology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis
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22
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Abstract
Auricular pain, redness, and swelling are usually the result of infectious cellulitis. However, relapsing polychondritis is another cause of this symptom complex and is the result of an autoimmune phenomenon. It presents with inflammation and destruction of both articular and nonarticular cartilage, with the external ear and joint cartilage most often involved. Although usually indolent with multiple acute exacerbations, relapsing polychondritis can be rapidly fatal if the airway or cardiovascular system is involved. We present a case of relapsing polychondritis initially mistaken for auricular cellulitis. The clinical manifestations and course of relapsing polychondritis are reviewed, along with the emergency department management.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Coppola
- Emergency Medicine Residency, Darnall Army Community Hospital, Fort Hood, Texas
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Abstract
The authors reviewed the records of 11 patients with relapsing polychondritis associated with active scleritis and analyzed the immunopathologic characteristics of ocular tissue from three of these. Seven patients (63%) required cytotoxic drugs, alone or in combination with low-dose oral corticosteroids. Only one patient was treated successfully with systemic corticosteroids alone. Two patients were controlled with dapsone and one with an oral nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug. Dapsone, which has been reported to be effective in the treatment of relapsing polychondritis, did not control the destructive scleral inflammation in six (75%) of eight patients; two (50%) of four patients with diffuse anterior scleritis were controlled with this drug. Patients with nodular and necrotizing scleritis were controlled with azathioprine and cyclophosphamide, respectively. These data suggest that the ocular manifestations of relapsing polychondritis, especially nodular and necrotizing scleritis, are less amenable to treatment with systemic corticosteroids and/or dapsone and that more potent immunosuppressants (azathioprine and cyclophosphamide) may be required to treat these lesions successfully. Results of histologic and immunofluorescent examination of conjunctival and/or scleral biopsy specimens from three patients confirmed the vasculitic nature of the eye lesions in this disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Hoang-Xaun
- Harvard Medical School, Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary, Boston 02114
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Trepel RJ, Lipnick RN, D'Angelo L. Relapsing polychondritis in an adolescent. JOURNAL OF ADOLESCENT HEALTH CARE : OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE SOCIETY FOR ADOLESCENT MEDICINE 1989; 10:557-60. [PMID: 2606758 DOI: 10.1016/0197-0070(89)90024-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Relapsing polychondritis (RP) is an uncommon systemic disorder with a highly variable course. A 17-year-old woman recently presented with a 1-month history of depression, weight loss, chest wall tenderness, hoarseness, and dysphagia. Physical examination revealed cachexia, low-grade fever, pharyngeal erythema, and tenderness of the right auricle, anterior chest, cricothyroid cartilage, and both knees. Laboratory studies included a hematocrit of 34% and a sedimentation rate of 50 mm/hr. Initial improvement on oral corticosteroids was followed by respiratory distress. At that time calcified tracheal cartilage, subglottic stricture, and a saddle nose deformity were present. Despite therapy with steroids, dapsone, and pulse cyclophosphamide, the respiratory distress reoccurred, eventually necessitating tracheostomy. Tracheal cartilage biopsy confirmed the presumptive diagnosis of RP. Bilateral auricular chondritis developed after initial presentation, as did acute vertigo. Although seen in all age groups, less than 10% of cases of RP are seen in children and adolescents. Auricular chondritis (89% of all cases), inflammatory asymetric arthritis (81% of all cases), nasal chondritis (72% of all cases), respiratory tract chondritis (56% of all cases), and audiovestibular abnormalities (46% of all cases) were present in our patient. Relapsing polychondritis may follow a slowly evolving or rapidly progressive course. Appropriate diagnosis and aggressive therapy are recommended to lessen the morbidity and mortality.
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Affiliation(s)
- R J Trepel
- Division of Adolescent and Young Adult Medicine, Children's Hospital National Medical Center, Washington, D.C
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25
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Schlapbach P, Gerber NJ, Ramser P, van't Hooft FM. Relapsing polychondritis mimicking rheumatoid arthritis. Ann Rheum Dis 1988; 47:1021-6. [PMID: 3207384 PMCID: PMC1003659 DOI: 10.1136/ard.47.12.1021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
A woman with relapsing polychondritis presented with progressive and deforming polyarthritis (but always negative for rheumatoid factor) 14 years before the appearance of typical clinical and histological changes of nasal and auricular cartilage destruction.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Schlapbach
- Department of Rheumatology, University of Berne, Switzerland
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26
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Abstract
A case of malignant otitis externa occurring in a fit 25-year-old non-diabetic male is reported. The clinical and histological findings support this diagnosis but neither identification nor culture of Pseudomonas aeruginosa was made and the condition was bilateral. The only pathogen identified was Staphylococcus aureus which has been reported in only two previous cases.
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Affiliation(s)
- D G Keay
- Department of Otolaryngology, Royal Infirmary, Edinburgh
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27
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Franssen MJ, Boerbooms AM, Van de Putte LB. Polychondritis and rheumatoid arthritis. Case report and review of the literature. Clin Rheumatol 1987; 6:453-7. [PMID: 3327645 DOI: 10.1007/bf02206849] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
We present the case history of a 50-year-old man with seropositive erosive rheumatoid arthritis of 30-years standing who developed polychondritis simultaneously with several extra-articular rheumatoid manifestations, such as anaemia, subcutaneous nodules, pericarditis and episcleritis. The relevant literature is reviewed. Gradually, all symptoms and signs disappeared after start of treatment with 30 mg prednisone and 100 mg azathioprine daily. We suggest that the polychondritis in this patient was also an extra-articular manifestation of rheumatoid arthritis.
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Affiliation(s)
- M J Franssen
- Department of Rheumatology, University Hospital St Radboud, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
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28
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Sane DC, Vidaillet HJ, Burton CS. Saddle nose, red ears, and fatal airway collapse. Relapsing polychondritis. Chest 1987; 91:268-70. [PMID: 3802940 DOI: 10.1378/chest.91.2.268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
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Abstract
The ocular and systemic findings in 112 Mayo Clinic patients with relapsing polychondritis were reviewed. The incidence of males and females was equal, with median age at diagnosis of 51 years and the median follow-up of 6 years. Most patients had several organ systems involved at the time of the diagnosis. Twenty-one patients had ocular symptoms at the onset, and 57 developed ocular symptoms during their course. Major ocular complications included proptosis, lid edema, episcleritis/scleritis, corneal infiltrates/thinning, iridocyclitis, retinopathy, and optic neuritis. The major system involvement included otorhinolaryngeal, respiratory, arthritic, renal, cardiovascular, dermatologic, and neurologic diseases. Generally, laboratory studies were not helpful in making the diagnosis but were valuable in monitoring the disease. Based on the experience in these cases, the indications for the various therapeutic modalities are offered.
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Case records of the Massachusetts General Hospital. Weekly clinicopathological exercises. Case 50-1985. A 41-year-old man with diffuse tracheal narrowing. N Engl J Med 1985; 313:1530-7. [PMID: 4069162 DOI: 10.1056/nejm198512123132408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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Manna R, Annese V, Ghirlanda G, Pennestri F, Greco AV, Pala MA, Bochicchio GB, Magaro M. Relapsing polychondritis with severe aortic insufficiency. Clin Rheumatol 1985; 4:474-80. [PMID: 3913557 DOI: 10.1007/bf02031904] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Relapsing polychondritis (RP) is a rare disease characterized by auricular, nasal and respiratory tract chondritis, ocular inflammation, inflammatory polyarthritis and cardiovascular abnormalities. Here we describe a patient with a five-year history of mild nasal and auricular chondritis, which suddenly developed into a severe aortic insufficiency with rest dyspnea. The pathogenesis and the management of this rare connective tissue disease are discussed.
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Case records of the Massachusetts General Hospital. Weekly clinicopathological exercises. Case 26-1985. A 43-year-old woman with a progressive saddle-nose deformity. N Engl J Med 1985; 312:1695-703. [PMID: 4000216 DOI: 10.1056/nejm198506273122607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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35
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Abstract
An external ear lesion designated as auricular chondropathy in aging Crl:CD rats was reported. One hundred eighty (180) of 4,876 rats (3.7%) had ear deformity. Grossly, the ears were thickened, nodular, or disfigured. Both ears were affected in most rats. The lesions primarily involved the cartilaginous plate and were associated with two processes--chondrolysis and granulomatous inflammation. The detailed morphogenesis of the lesions is described, but the etiology of the lesions is unknown. Auricular chondropathy in rats and relapsing polychondritis in man are compared.
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36
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Giordano M, Valentini G, Sodano A. Relapsing polychondritis with aortic arch aneurysm and aortic arch syndrome. Rheumatol Int 1984; 4:191-3. [PMID: 6484450 DOI: 10.1007/bf00541214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
A case of relapsing polychondritis with aortic arch aneurysm and aortic arch syndrome is described. The pattern of vascular involvement supports the inclusion of relapsing polychondritis within the spectrum of systemic vasculitides.
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37
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Dahlqvist A, Lundberg E, Ostberg Y. Hydralazine-induced relapsing polychondritis-like syndrome. Report of a case with severe chronic laryngeal complications. Acta Otolaryngol 1983; 96:355-9. [PMID: 6605652 DOI: 10.3109/00016488309132907] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Relapsing polychondritis is a rare disease of uncertain etiology, characterized by inflammation of cartilage. Cartilage of the respiratory tract is engaged in more than half of all cases. Hydralazine-induced systemic lupus erythematosis (SLE) is a well known disease. Females who are slow acetylators and are HLA-DR4 positive when treated with hydralazine are at serious risk of contracting SLE syndrome. We describe here a woman, treated for 10 years with hydralazine, who was a slow acetylator and was HLA-DR4 positive and who presented with a relapsing polychondritis and ultimately required a permanent tracheostoma. To our knowledge, this is the first published case of relapsing polychondritis induced by hydralazine.
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Case records of the Massachusetts General Hospital. Weekly clinicopathological exercises. Case 51-1982. Chrondritis of the left ear, orbital swelling and respiratory stridor. N Engl J Med 1982; 307:1631-9. [PMID: 7144850 DOI: 10.1056/nejm198212233072607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
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40
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McCune WJ, Schiller AL, Dynesius-Trentham RA, Trentham DE. Type II collagen-induced auricular chondritis. ARTHRITIS AND RHEUMATISM 1982; 25:266-73. [PMID: 7039630 DOI: 10.1002/art.1780250304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Sensitization to type II collagen induced inflammatory destruction of elastic ear cartilage, as well as arthritis, in Sprague-Dawley rats. This auricular lesion morphologically resembled relapsing polychondritis in humans. Moreover, in the experimental model, as has been reported in human disease, extraarticular chondritis occurred in the context of immunologic sensitivity to native type II collagen. These similarities suggest that type II collagen-induced auricular chondritis may provide insights about the pathogenesis of relapsing polychondritis.
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Linck G, Porte A, Mantz JM, Tempe JD, Jaeger A, Hauber C, Batzenschlager A. Light and electron microscopic study of ear cartilage in a case of relapsing polychondritis evolving under corticoid treatment. VIRCHOWS ARCHIV. A, PATHOLOGICAL ANATOMY AND HISTOLOGY 1981; 391:301-8. [PMID: 7281496 DOI: 10.1007/bf00709162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Light and electron microscope studies of the ear cartilage in a patient with relapsing polychondritis (RP) under corticoid treatment are reported. Unilateral auricular deformation evolved without inflammatory epidoses and the lesions consisted mainly of marginal erosions filled with fine collagen fibrils and containing degenerating perichondrial cells in their basal parts. Degenerative cells were scattered throughout the perichondrium, but cartilage erosions only occurred when numerous cells were affected in a same area. Cartilage outside the eroded zones did not seem to be modified. Cartilage lesions thus appear to be a result of a chondrocyte renewal defect leading to loss of proteoglycans and elastic fibers, with only collagen remaining. These data suggest that inflammation is probably not the initial pathogenic process responsible for cartilage injury in RP, but that a metabolic defect in perichondrial cells might be involved.
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Small P, Frenkiel S. Relapsing polychondritis. A feature of systemic lupus erythematosus. ARTHRITIS AND RHEUMATISM 1980; 23:361-3. [PMID: 7362689 DOI: 10.1002/art.1780230317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
In summary, we have presented two well documented cases of SLE with relapsing polychondritis. The chondritis was not a presenting feature and had no obvious prognostic significance. Neither patient has developed any further manifestations of relapsing polychondritis. A local immune complex etiology may be suggested by the laboratory findings. Treatment with corticosteroids was associated with the resolution of inflammation within a few days. Relapsing polychondritis should be recognized as an uncommon feature of SLE.
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McCaffrey TV, McDonald TJ, McCaffrey LA. Head and neck manifestations of relapsing polychondritis: review of 29 cases. OTOLARYNGOLOGY 1978; 86:ORL473-8. [PMID: 112539 DOI: 10.1177/019459987808600318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
This review of 29 patients with relapsing polychondritis seen at the Mayo Clinic between 1962 and 1976 emphasizes the head and neck manifestations of the disease and the role of the otolaryngologist in its diagnosis and treatment. The major clinical features included inflammation of the pinna, eye involvement, nasal cartilage involvement, laryngotracheal involvement, arthropathy, hearing loss, costal chondritis, and fever. The erythrocyte sedimentation rate was often elevated, and mild anemia was not uncommon.
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Teo SK, Chew SF, Lee SK, Chiang SC. Respiratory obstruction due to relapsing polychondritis in a Chinese male. Med J Aust 1977; 2:669-70. [PMID: 607112 DOI: 10.5694/j.1326-5377.1977.tb99199.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
A case of relapsing polychondritis in a 30-year-old Chinese male is reported. The patient showed the following features: dyspnoea; hoarseness of voice; cauliflower deformity of the right ear; upper tracheal stenosis; swelling of the lower part of the sternum; pain in the costal cartilages. Airway obstruction as a presenting feature (as in this case) is unusual. The aetiology, clinical features and management of relapsing polychondritis are briefly discussed.
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Hashimoto K, Arkin CR, Kang AH. Relapsing polychondritis: an ultrastructural study. ARTHRITIS AND RHEUMATISM 1977; 20:91-9. [PMID: 836341 DOI: 10.1002/art.1780200116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Ear cartilage from a typical case of relapsing polychondritis was examined with the electron microscope. A large number of dense granules and vesicles, which were compatible with matrix vesicles or lysosomes, surrounded the affected chondrocytes. In less severely damaged chondrocytes, these granules and vesicles appeared to be formed by pinching off of the cytoplasmic processes or by budding from the processes. Calcification of the granules was minimal. In severely damaged chondrocytes, an admixture of these granules and cytoplasmic organelles occurred. It is speculated that many of these dense granules are lysosomal in nature and that they may produce inflammation and reduce the proteoglycan content of cartilage.
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