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Hao G, Conzen-Dilger C, Schmidt TP, Harder E, Schöps M, Clauser JC, Schubert GA, Lindauer U. Effect of isolated intracranial hypertension on cerebral perfusion within the phase of primary disturbances after subarachnoid hemorrhage in rats. Front Cell Neurosci 2023; 17:1115385. [PMID: 37502465 PMCID: PMC10368889 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2023.1115385] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2022] [Accepted: 06/05/2023] [Indexed: 07/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Elevated intracranial pressure (ICP) and blood components are the main trigger factors starting the complex pathophysiological cascade following subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH). It is not clear whether they independently contribute to tissue damage or whether their impact cannot be differentiated from each other. We here aimed to establish a rat intracranial hypertension model that allows distinguishing the effects of these two factors and investigating the relationship between elevated ICP and hypoperfusion very early after SAH. Methods Blood or four different types of fluids [gelofusine, silicone oil, artificial cerebrospinal fluid (aCSF), aCSF plus xanthan (CX)] were injected into the cisterna magna in anesthetized rats, respectively. Arterial blood pressure, ICP and cerebral blood flow (CBF) were continuously measured up to 6 h after injection. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays were performed to measure the pro-inflammatory cytokines interleukin 6 (IL-6) and tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α) in brain cortex and peripheral blood. Results Silicone oil injection caused deaths of almost all animals. Compared to blood, gelofusine resulted in lower peak ICP and lower plateau phase. Artificial CSF reached a comparable ICP peak value but failed to reach the ICP plateau of blood injection. Injection of CX with comparable viscosity as blood reproduced the ICP course of the blood injection group. Compared with the CBF course after blood injection, CX induced a comparable early global ischemia within the first minutes which was followed by a prompt return to baseline level with no further hypoperfusion despite an equal ICP course. The inflammatory response within the tissue did not differ between blood or blood-substitute injection. The systemic inflammation was significantly more pronounced in the CX injection group compared with the other fluids including blood. Discussion By cisterna magna injection of blood substitution fluids, we established a subarachnoid space occupying rat model that exactly mimicked the course of ICP in the first 6 h following blood injection. Fluids lacking blood components did not induce the typical prolonged hypoperfusion occurring after blood-injection in this very early phase. Our study strongly suggests that blood components rather than elevated ICP play an important role for early hypoperfusion events in SAH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guangshan Hao
- Translational Neurosurgery and Neurobiology, Department of Neurosurgery, Medical Faculty, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
- Department of Neurosurgery, Liaocheng People’s Hospital, Liaocheng, Shandong, China
| | - Catharina Conzen-Dilger
- Translational Neurosurgery and Neurobiology, Department of Neurosurgery, Medical Faculty, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
- Department of Neurosurgery, Medical Faculty, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
| | - Tobias Philip Schmidt
- Translational Neurosurgery and Neurobiology, Department of Neurosurgery, Medical Faculty, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
- Department of Neurosurgery, Medical Faculty, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
| | - Ekaterina Harder
- Translational Neurosurgery and Neurobiology, Department of Neurosurgery, Medical Faculty, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
| | - Malte Schöps
- Department of Cardiovascular Engineering, Institute of Applied Medical Engineering, University Hospital RWTH Aachen, Aachen, Germany
| | - Johanna Charlotte Clauser
- Department of Cardiovascular Engineering, Institute of Applied Medical Engineering, University Hospital RWTH Aachen, Aachen, Germany
| | - Gerrit Alexander Schubert
- Department of Neurosurgery, Medical Faculty, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
- Department of Neurosurgery, Kantonsspital Aarau, Aarau, Switzerland
| | - Ute Lindauer
- Translational Neurosurgery and Neurobiology, Department of Neurosurgery, Medical Faculty, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
- Department of Neurosurgery, Medical Faculty, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
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Rustenhoven J, Tanumihardja C, Kipnis J. Cerebrovascular Anomalies: Perspectives From Immunology and Cerebrospinal Fluid Flow. Circ Res 2021; 129:174-194. [PMID: 34166075 DOI: 10.1161/circresaha.121.318173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Appropriate vascular function is essential for the maintenance of central nervous system homeostasis and is achieved through virtue of the blood-brain barrier; a specialized structure consisting of endothelial, mural, and astrocytic interactions. While appropriate blood-brain barrier function is typically achieved, the central nervous system vasculature is not infallible and cerebrovascular anomalies, a collective terminology for diverse vascular lesions, are present in meningeal and cerebral vasculature supplying and draining the brain. These conditions, including aneurysmal formation and rupture, arteriovenous malformations, dural arteriovenous fistulas, and cerebral cavernous malformations, and their associated neurological sequelae, are typically managed with neurosurgical or pharmacological approaches. However, increasing evidence implicates interacting roles for inflammatory responses and disrupted central nervous system fluid flow with respect to vascular perturbations. Here, we discuss cerebrovascular anomalies from an immunologic angle and fluid flow perspective. We describe immune contributions, both common and distinct, to the formation and progression of diverse cerebrovascular anomalies. Next, we summarize how cerebrovascular anomalies precipitate diverse neurological sequelae, including seizures, hydrocephalus, and cognitive effects and possible contributions through the recently identified lymphatic and glymphatic systems. Finally, we speculate on and provide testable hypotheses for novel nonsurgical therapeutic approaches for alleviating neurological impairments arising from cerebrovascular anomalies, with a particular emphasis on the normalization of fluid flow and alleviation of inflammation through manipulations of the lymphatic and glymphatic central nervous system clearance pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justin Rustenhoven
- Center for Brain Immunology and Glia (J.R., J.K.), Washington University in St. Louis, St Louis, MO.,Department of Pathology and Immunology, School of Medicine (J.R., J.K.), Washington University in St. Louis, St Louis, MO
| | | | - Jonathan Kipnis
- Center for Brain Immunology and Glia (J.R., J.K.), Washington University in St. Louis, St Louis, MO.,Department of Pathology and Immunology, School of Medicine (J.R., J.K.), Washington University in St. Louis, St Louis, MO
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Ghali GZ, Ghali MGZ. Nafamostat mesylate attenuates the pathophysiologic sequelae of neurovascular ischemia. Neural Regen Res 2020; 15:2217-2234. [PMID: 32594033 PMCID: PMC7749469 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.284981] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Nafamostat mesylate, an apparent soi-disant panacea of sorts, is widely used to anticoagulate patients undergoing hemodialysis or cardiopulmonary bypass, mitigate the inflammatory response in patients diagnosed with acute pancreatitis, and reverse the coagulopathy of patients experiencing the commonly preterminal disseminated intravascular coagulation in the Far East. The serine protease inhibitor nafamostat mesylate exhibits significant neuroprotective effects in the setting of neurovascular ischemia. Nafamostat mesylate generates neuroprotective effects by attenuating the enzymatic activity of serine proteases, neuroinflammatory signaling cascades, and the endoplasmic reticulum stress responses, downregulating excitotoxic transient receptor membrane channel subfamily 7 cationic currents, modulating the activity of intracellular signal transduction pathways, and supporting neuronal survival (brain-derived neurotrophic factor/TrkB/ERK1/2/CREB, nuclear factor kappa B. The effects collectively reduce neuronal necrosis and apoptosis and prevent ischemia mediated disruption of blood-brain barrier microarchitecture. Investigational clinical applications of these compounds may mitigate ischemic reperfusion injury in patients undergoing cardiac, hepatic, renal, or intestinal transplant, preventing allograft rejection, and treating solid organ malignancies. Neuroprotective effects mediated by nafamostat mesylate support the wise conduct of randomized prospective controlled trials in Western countries to evaluate the clinical utility of this compound.
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Affiliation(s)
- George Zaki Ghali
- United States Environmental Protection Agency, Arlington, VA; Department of Toxicology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
| | - Michael George Zaki Ghali
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA; Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
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Ghali MGZ, Srinivasan VM, Johnson J, Kan P, Britz G. Therapeutically Targeting Platelet-Derived Growth Factor-Mediated Signaling Underlying the Pathogenesis of Subarachnoid Hemorrhage-Related Vasospasm. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis 2018; 27:2289-2295. [PMID: 30037648 DOI: 10.1016/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2018.02.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2017] [Accepted: 02/10/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Vasospasm accounts for a large fraction of the morbidity and mortality burden in patients sustaining subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH). Platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)-β levels rise following SAH and correlate with incidence and severity of vasospasm. METHODS The literature was reviewed for studies investigating the role of PDGF in the pathogenesis of SAH-related vasospasm and efficacy of pharmacological interventions targeting the PDGF pathway in ameliorating the same and improving clinical outcomes. RESULTS Release of blood under high pressure into the subarachnoid space activates the complement cascade, which results in release of PDGF. Abluminal contact of blood with cerebral vessels increases their contractile response to PDGF-β and thrombin, with the latter upregulating PDGF-β receptors and augmenting effects of PDGF-β. PDGF-β figures prominently in the early and late phases of post-SAH vasospasm. PDGF-β binding to the PDGF receptor-β results in receptor tyrosine kinase domain activation and consequent stimulation of intracellular signaling pathways, including p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase, phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase, Rho-associated protein kinase, and extracellular regulated kinase 1 and 2. Consequent increases in intracellular calcium and increased expression of genes mediating cellular growth and proliferation mediate PDGF-induced augmentation of vascular smooth muscle cell contractility, hypertrophy, and proliferation. CONCLUSION Treatments with statins, serine protease inhibitors, and small molecular pathway inhibitors have demonstrated varying degrees of efficacy in prevention of cerebral vasospasm, which is improved with earlier institution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael George Zaki Ghali
- Department of Neurosurgery, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas; Department of Neurosurgery, Houston Methodist Hospital, Houston, Texas.
| | | | - Jeremiah Johnson
- Department of Neurosurgery, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas
| | - Peter Kan
- Department of Neurosurgery, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas
| | - Gavin Britz
- Department of Neurosurgery, Houston Methodist Hospital, Houston, Texas
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Effects of Tenascin-C Knockout on Cerebral Vasospasm After Experimental Subarachnoid Hemorrhage in Mice. Mol Neurobiol 2017; 55:1951-1958. [DOI: 10.1007/s12035-017-0466-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2016] [Accepted: 02/20/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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Inflammation, vasospasm, and brain injury after subarachnoid hemorrhage. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2014; 2014:384342. [PMID: 25105123 PMCID: PMC4106062 DOI: 10.1155/2014/384342] [Citation(s) in RCA: 122] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2014] [Revised: 05/14/2014] [Accepted: 05/26/2014] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) can lead to devastating neurological outcomes, and there are few pharmacologic treatments available for treating this condition. Both animal and human studies provide evidence of inflammation being a driving force behind the pathology of SAH, leading to both direct brain injury and vasospasm, which in turn leads to ischemic brain injury. Several inflammatory mediators that are elevated after SAH have been studied in detail. While there is promising data indicating that blocking these factors might benefit patients after SAH, there has been little success in clinical trials. One of the key factors that complicates clinical trials of SAH is the variability of the initial injury and subsequent inflammatory response. It is likely that both genetic and environmental factors contribute to the variability of patients' post-SAH inflammatory response and that this confounds trials of anti-inflammatory therapies. Additionally, systemic inflammation from other conditions that affect patients with SAH could contribute to brain injury and vasospasm after SAH. Continuing work on biomarkers of inflammation after SAH may lead to development of patient-specific anti-inflammatory therapies to improve outcome after SAH.
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Yanamoto H, Kataoka H, Nakajo Y, Iihara K. The Role of the Host Defense System in the Development of Cerebral Vasospasm: Analogies between Atherosclerosis and Subarachnoid Hemorrhage. Eur Neurol 2012; 68:329-43. [DOI: 10.1159/000341336] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2012] [Accepted: 06/24/2012] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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Tulamo R, Niemelä M, Hernesniemi J. Delayed Vasospasm in Aneurysmal Subarachnoid Hemorrhage. World Neurosurg 2012; 77:39-41. [DOI: 10.1016/j.wneu.2010.01.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2009] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Pradilla G, Chaichana KL, Hoang S, Huang J, Tamargo RJ. Inflammation and cerebral vasospasm after subarachnoid hemorrhage. Neurosurg Clin N Am 2010; 21:365-79. [PMID: 20380976 DOI: 10.1016/j.nec.2009.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Morbidity and mortality of patients with aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage (aSAH) is significantly related to the development of chronic cerebral vasospasm. Despite extensive clinical and experimental research, the pathophysiology of the events that result in delayed arterial spasm is not fully understood. A review of the published literature on cerebral vasospasm that included but was not limited to all PubMed citations from 1951 to the present was performed. The findings suggest that leukocyte-endothelial cell interactions play a significant role in the pathophysiology of cerebral vasospasm and explain the clinical variability and time course of the disease. Experimental therapeutic targeting of the inflammatory response when timed correctly can prevent vasospasm, and supplementation of endothelial relaxation by nitric oxide-related therapies and other approaches could result in reversal of the arterial narrowing and improved outcomes in patients with aSAH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gustavo Pradilla
- Division of Cerebrovascular Neurosurgery, Department of Neurosurgery, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Meyer Building 8-181, 600 North Wolfe Street, Baltimore, MD 21287, USA
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Zhang ZW, Yanamoto H, Nagata I, Miyamoto S, Nakajo Y, Xue JH, Iihara K, Kikuchi H. Platelet-derived growth factor-induced severe and chronic vasoconstriction of cerebral arteries: proposed growth factor explanation of cerebral vasospasm. Neurosurgery 2010; 66:728-35; discussion 735. [PMID: 20305494 DOI: 10.1227/01.neu.0000366111.08024.26] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE After subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH), platelet-derived growth factor-BB (PDGF-BB) is secreted in and around the cerebral arteries. To clarify the role of PDGF-BB in the development of vasospasm after SAH, we determined whether PDGF-BB alone can cause long-lasting vasoconstriction of a severity similar to that of vasospasm. In addition, the anti-vasospastic effect of trapidil, an antagonist of PDGF-BB function, was investigated. METHODS We infused recombinant PDGF-BB (10 microg/mL saline as the vehicle) (n = 14) into the subarachnoid space of rabbits and analyzed alterations in the caliber of the basilar artery using repeated angiography. To study the role of PDGF-BB on the development of vasospasm, trapidil was administered continuously starting 1 hour after SAH, on day 0 (0.63-1.25 mg/kg /h or vehicle) for 47 hours (n = 24), or after the full development of cerebral vasospasm on day 2 (3.0 mg/kg/h or vehicle) for 0.5 hours (n = 17), and alterations in the caliber of the basilar artery were monitored. RESULTS PDGF-BB caused long-lasting vasoconstriction, with maximum constriction of 56% (P < .001) of the control value (= 100%) on day 2, resembling vasospasm seen after SAH. Prolonged administration of intravenous trapidil, starting soon after SAH, prevented the development of vasospasm in a dose-dependent manner (P < .05, .01, or .001). Intravenous or intra-arterial administration of trapidil significantly dilated vasospasm (P < .01) on day 2, at least transiently. CONCLUSION PDGF-BB, a growth factor synthesized in the subarachnoid space after SAH, can cause severe and long-lasting vasoconstriction. Significant prevention and resolution of vasospasm can be achieved by the PDGF-BB antagonist trapidil. We propose that excessive production of PDGF-BB, essentially aiming to repair injured arteries, causes cerebral vasospasm. Although the half-life of trapidil in serum may be shorter than that of PDGFG-BB-derived spasmogenic signaling, trapidil is a candidate drug for constructing a new therapeutic modality for preventing and resolving vasospasm.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhi-Wen Zhang
- Laboratory for Cerebrovascular Disorders, Research Institute of National Cardiovascular Center, Suita, Osaka, Japan
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Chaichana KL, Pradilla G, Huang J, Tamargo RJ. Role of inflammation (leukocyte-endothelial cell interactions) in vasospasm after subarachnoid hemorrhage. World Neurosurg 2009; 73:22-41. [PMID: 20452866 DOI: 10.1016/j.surneu.2009.05.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2008] [Accepted: 05/27/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Delayed vasospasm is the leading cause of morbidity and mortality after aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage (aSAH). This phenomenon was first described more than 50 years ago, but only recently has the role of inflammation in this condition become better understood. METHODS The literature was reviewed for studies on delayed vasospasm and inflammation. RESULTS There is increasing evidence that inflammation and, more specifically, leukocyte-endothelial cell interactions play a critical role in the pathogenesis of vasospasm after aSAH, as well as in other conditions including meningitis and traumatic brain injury. Although earlier clinical observations and indirect experimental evidence suggested an association between inflammation and chronic vasospasm, recently direct molecular evidence demonstrates the central role of leukocyte-endothelial cell interactions in the development of chronic vasospasm. This evidence shows in both clinical and experimental studies that cell adhesion molecules (CAMs) are up-regulated in the perivasospasm period. Moreover, the use of monoclonal antibodies against these CAMs, as well as drugs that decrease the expression of CAMs, decreases vasospasm in experimental studies. It also appears that certain individuals are genetically predisposed to a severe inflammatory response after aSAH based on their haptoglobin genotype, which in turn predisposes them to develop clinically symptomatic vasospasm. CONCLUSION Based on this evidence, leukocyte-endothelial cell interactions appear to be the root cause of chronic vasospasm. This hypothesis predicts many surprising features of vasospasm and explains apparently unrelated phenomena observed in aSAH patients. Therapies aimed at preventing inflammation may prevent and/or reverse arterial narrowing in patients with aSAH and result in improved outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaisorn L Chaichana
- Division of Cerebrovascular Neurosurgery, Department of Neurosurgery, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
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Gallia GL, Tamargo RJ. Leukocyte-endothelial cell interactions in chronic vasospasm after subarachnoid hemorrhage. Neurol Res 2007; 28:750-8. [PMID: 17164038 DOI: 10.1179/016164106x152025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022]
Abstract
Leukocyte-endothelial cell interactions appear to be the root cause of chronic vasospasm after aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage (aSAH). Early clinical observations and indirect experimental evidence suggested an association between inflammation and chronic vasospasm. Early clinical observations in patients with post-hemorrhagic vasospasm included pyrexia, leukocytosis and the presence of circulating immune complexes. Inflammatory infiltrates and increased levels of immunoglobulins and complement fractions within spastic cerebral arteries also provided early evidence for an inflammatory mechanism underlying chronic vasospasm. Early indirect experimental evidence included the ability to reproduce chronic vasospasm with the introduction of inflammatory agents into the subarachnoid space and the inhibition of vasospasm with anti-inflammatory agents. Currently, however, there is an increasing body of direct molecular evidence that demonstrates the pivotal role of leukocyte-endothelial cell interactions in the development of chronic vasospasm. Cell adhesion molecules such as intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1), lymphocyte function-associated antigen-1 (LFA-1), macrophage antigen-1 (Mac-1) and endothelial (E)-selectin mediate interactions between circulating leukocytes and cerebral endothelium. Following aSAH, ICAM-1 is up-regulated in cerebral endothelial cells and along with other cell adhesion molecules, can be detected in the serum and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of patients with post-hemorrhagic vasospasm. Monoclonal antibody blocking experiments have demonstrated that the prevention of leukocyte extravasation into the subarachnoid space prevents chronic vasospasm. Similarly, drugs like ibuprofen, which prevent ICAM-1 up-regulation and transendothelial cell migration of leukocytes, prevent vasospasm. In this review, we highlight early observations that suggested an association between inflammation and post-hemorrhagic vasospasm, detail the role of leukocyte-endothelial cell interactions in the development of chronic vasospasm and discuss therapeutic implications of an inflammatory etiology of post-hemorrhagic cerebral vasospasm.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gary L Gallia
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
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Recinos PF, Pradilla G, Thai QA, Perez M, Hdeib AM, Tamargo RJ. Controlled release of lipopolysaccharide in the subarachnoid space of rabbits induces chronic vasospasm in the absence of blood. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006; 66:463-9; discussion 469. [PMID: 17084186 DOI: 10.1016/j.surneu.2006.04.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2005] [Accepted: 04/11/2006] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Leukocyte-endothelial cell interactions appear to play a role in the development of vasospasm after SAH. Using a purely inflammatory protein, LPS, we evaluated the effect of inflammation on the development of chronic vasospasm in the absence of blood and compared it to SAH-induced vasospasm in rabbits. METHODS Lipopolysaccharide was incorporated into EVAc polymers to produce 20% LPS/EVAc polymers (wt/wt). Rabbits (n = 23) were randomized to 4 experimental groups: (1) empty polymer (n = 6), (2) SAH (n = 5), (3) 0.7 mg/kg polymeric LPS dose (n = 6), and (4) 1.4 mg/kg polymeric LPS dose (n = 6). Blood and polymers were inserted into the cisterna magna. The rabbits were killed 3 days postoperatively, and the basilar arteries were harvested for morphometric analysis. Clinical response and lumen patencies were analyzed using ANOVA and a post hoc Newman-Keuls Multiple Comparisons test. RESULTS Significant narrowing of the basilar artery was observed by insertion of 20% LPS/EVAc polymers into the subarachnoid space at a polymeric dose of 1.4 mg/kg (actual dose, 66 microg kg(-1) d(-1)) (75.4% +/- 4.2%; P < .01) and by SAH (80.3% +/- 8.1%; P < .01) as compared with the empty polymer group. A trend toward narrowing was observed in the 0.7 mg/kg polymeric LPS dose group (actual dose, 33 microg kg(-1) d(-1)) (85.2% +/- 2.6%; P > .05). Symptoms associated with SAH were noted in 50% of the rabbits in the 0.7 mg/kg LPS group and in 100% of rabbits in the 1.4 mg/kg LPS group. CONCLUSION Controlled release of LPS into the subarachnoid space of rabbits produced chronic vasospasm in a dose-dependent manner. At a polymeric dose of 1.4 mg/kg, LPS-induced vasospasm was equivalent to that induced by SAH. This suggests that LPS and SAH may induce vasospasm through similar mechanisms and provides further evidence that inflammation plays a central role in the etiology of chronic vasospasm.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pablo F Recinos
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21287, USA
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Kang S. Functional characteristics of the spasm model by the polystyrene latex bead. ACTA NEUROCHIRURGICA. SUPPLEMENT 2002; 77:103-5. [PMID: 11563264 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-7091-6232-3_22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- S Kang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Institute of Wonkwang Medical Science, School of Medicine, Wonkwang University, Iksan, Korea
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Barbosa MD, Arthur AS, Louis RH, MacDonald T, Polin RS, Gazak C, Kassell NF. The novel 5-lipoxygenase inhibitor ABT-761 attenuates cerebral vasospasm in a rabbit model of subarachnoid hemorrhage. Neurosurgery 2001; 49:1205-12; discussion 1212-3. [PMID: 11846914 DOI: 10.1097/00006123-200111000-00032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2000] [Accepted: 06/28/2001] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Eicosanoids have been implicated in the pathogenesis of cerebral vasospasm after subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH). Leukotrienes, 5-hydroxyperoxyeicosatetraenoic acid, and 5-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid are part of this group of substances, resulting from the 5-lipoxygenase activity on arachidonic acid metabolism. This study examined the effects of ABT-761, a new 5-lipoxygenase inhibitor, on cerebral vasospasm in an in vivo rabbit model of SAH. METHODS A total of 48 rabbits were assigned to one of six groups: SAH + placebo (n = 8), SAH + ABT-761 20 mg/kg (n = 8), SAH + ABT-761 30 mg/kg (n = 8), control + placebo (n = 8), control + ABT-761 20 mg/kg (n = 8), and control + ABT-761 30 mg/kg (n = 8). Drug administration was initiated 30 minutes after induction of SAH and repeated 24 hours later. The animals were killed 48 hours after SAH, using the perfusion-fixation method. The cross sectional areas of basilar artery histological sections were measured by an investigator blinded to the treatment groups of the individual samples. RESULTS In placebo-treated animals, the average luminal cross sectional area of the basilar artery was reduced by 68% after SAH as compared with controls (P < 0.0001). After SAH, the vasospastic response was attenuated in animals treated with 20 or 30 mg/kg representing a 28 or 35% reduction, respectively (P = 0.0011 and P = 0.0038). CONCLUSION The results demonstrated that ABT-761 is effective in attenuating experimental cerebral vasospasm, indicating that this new drug represents a potential therapeutic agent for the treatment of vasospasm after SAH.
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Affiliation(s)
- M D Barbosa
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Virginia Health Sciences Center, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA
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Barbosa MD, Arthur AS, Louis RH, MacDonald T, Polin RS, Gazak C, Kassell NF. The Novel 5-Lipoxygenase Inhibitor ABT-761 Attenuates Cerebral Vasospasm in a Rabbit Model of Subarachnoid Hemorrhage. Neurosurgery 2001. [DOI: 10.1227/00006123-200111000-00032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
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Zhang Z, Nagata I, Kikuchi H, Xue JH, Sakai N, Sakai H, Yanamoto H. Broad-spectrum and selective serine protease inhibitors prevent expression of platelet-derived growth factor-BB and cerebral vasospasm after subarachnoid hemorrhage: vasospasm caused by cisternal injection of recombinant platelet-derived growth factor-BB. Stroke 2001; 32:1665-72. [PMID: 11441217 DOI: 10.1161/01.str.32.7.1665] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Plasma serine protease cascade, including the complement system and thrombin, is activated in the subarachnoid space during the acute phase after subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH). To examine the effect of protease cascade-based inflammation and subsequent vascular repair in the development of cerebral vasospasm, we examined the effect of 2 synthetic serine protease inhibitors-FUT-175, an inhibitor of thrombin and the complement system, and argatroban, a selective inhibitor of thrombin-on the development of cerebral vasospasm in a rabbit SAH model. METHODS One hundred Japanese White male rabbits were used in the study. The SAH was simulated by a single injection of autologous arterial blood into the cisterna magna. To evaluate the development of cerebral vasospasm, the caliber of the basilar artery was measured on x-ray film before and at 2 days after SAH. Nine groups of rabbits (n=6 each) were treated with continuous intravenous injection of FUT-175 (2.5, 5, 10, or 20 mg/d), argatroban (1.25, 2.5, or 5 mg/d), or the same amount of saline (vehicle) for 48 hours, starting 40 minutes after SAH. Two days after SAH, the expression of homodimer of platelet-derived growth factor-BB (PDGF-BB) in the basilar artery was examined with immunohistochemical techniques. In 20 normal rabbits, 5 microg of recombinant PDGF-BB or vehicle was injected into the cisterna magna, and the basilar arteries were examined on angiograms for 48 hours. RESULTS Significant differences were observed in the caliber of the basilar arteries between the vehicle group and the groups with the 3 larger doses of FUT-175 (vehicle, 52+/-5.0%; 5 mg, 79+/-5.7%; 10 mg, 80+/-2.5%; 20 mg, 80+/-3.7%) and between the vehicle group and the groups with the 2 larger doses of argatroban (vehicle, 52+/-6.4%; 2.5 mg, 81+/-9.0%; 5 mg, 85+/-4.1%) (P<0.05). In the histological examination, administration of effective doses of FUT-175 or argatroban suppressed the expression of PDGF-BB in the endothelial and medial smooth muscle cell layers. Exogenous PDGF-BB caused delayed and prolonged vasoconstriction on normal basilar arteries. CONCLUSIONS Activation of the serine protease cascade and/or thrombin after SAH was demonstrated to play an essential role in the development of cerebral vasospasm. The expression of PDGF-BB-like protein in the arterial walls correlated with the development of cerebral vasospasm. Elevated PDGF-BB level in the subarachnoid space was found to induce delayed and chronic vasoconstriction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Z Zhang
- Laboratory for Cerebrovascular Disorders, Research Institute of National Cardiovascular Center, Osaka, Japan
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Park CC, Shin ML, Simard JM. The complement membrane attack complex and the bystander effect in cerebral vasospasm. Neurosurg Focus 1997. [DOI: 10.3171/foc.1997.3.4.8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Activation of complement results in formation of membrane attack complexes (MACs) that can insert themselves either into cells that initiate complement activation or into nearby (“innocent bystander”) cells. The MACs form large-conductance, nonspecific ion channels that can cause lytic or sublytic cell damage. The authors used a highly sensitive patch clamp technique to assess the contribution of the bystander effect to the pathophysiology of cerebral vasospasm. They compared the effect of complement activation by autologous aged versus fresh erythrocytes on the membrane conductance of freshly isolated rat cerebral artery smooth-muscle cells. In the presence of autologous serum, aged, but not fresh, erythrocytes caused a large increase in membrane conductance, an effect that was prevented by heat-inactivating the serum. Ethyleneglycol tetraacetic acid in the presence of Mg++ attenuated the effect, indicating that complement activation was taking place via the classic pathway. The effect was reproduced by zymosan-activated autologous serum, suggesting that such changes in conductance could result from insertion of MACs secondary to a bystander effect. Both C8- and C9-depleted heterologous sera produced minimal effects that were converted to full effect by addition of the missing complement component. Superoxide dismutase plus catalase did not attenuate the conductance changes produced by autologous serum plus aged erythrocytes. Autologous serum plus aged erythrocyte membrane ghosts that were free of lysate caused a typical increase in conductance. This study demonstrates that complement activation by aged erythrocytes can result in MAC insertion into innocent bystander smooth-muscle cell membranes and that this mechanism, heretofore undescribed, may contribute to development of vasospasm after subarachnoid hemorrhage.
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Park CC, Shin ML, Simard JM. The complement membrane attack complex and the bystander effect in cerebral vasospasm. J Neurosurg 1997; 87:294-300. [PMID: 9254096 DOI: 10.3171/jns.1997.87.2.0294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Activation of complement results in formation of membrane attack complexes (MACs) that can insert themselves either into cells that initiate complement activation or into nearby ("innocent bystander") cells. The MACs form large-conductance, nonspecific ion channels that can cause lytic or sublytic cell damage. The authors used a highly sensitive patch clamp technique to assess the contribution of the bystander effect to the pathophysiology of cerebral vasospasm. They compared the effect of complement activation by autologous aged versus fresh erythrocytes on the membrane conductance of freshly isolated rat cerebral artery smooth-muscle cells. In the presence of autologous serum aged, but not fresh, erythrocytes caused a large increase in membrane conductance, an effect that was prevented by heat-inactivating the serum. Ethyleneglycol tetraacetic acid in the presence of Mg++ attenuated the effect, indicating that complement activation was taking place via the classic pathway. The effect was reproduced by zymosan-activated autologous serum, suggesting that such changes in conductance could result from insertion of MACs secondary to a bystander effect. Both C8- and C9-depleted heterologous sera produced minimal effects that were converted to full effect by addition of the missing complement component. Superoxide dismutase plus catalase did not attenuate the conductance changes produced by autologous serum plus aged erythrocytes. Autologous serum plus aged erythrocyte membrane ghosts that were free of lysate caused a typical increase in conductance. This study demonstrates that complement activation by aged erythrocytes can result in MAC insertion into innocent bystander smooth-muscle cell membranes and that this mechanism, heretofore undescribed, may contribute to development of vasospasm after subarachnoid hemorrhage.
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Affiliation(s)
- C C Park
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore 21201, USA
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German JW, Gross CE, Giclas P, Watral W, Bednar MM. Systemic complement depletion inhibits experimental cerebral vasospasm. Neurosurgery 1996; 39:141-5; discussion 145-6. [PMID: 8805150 DOI: 10.1097/00006123-199607000-00028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Cerebral vasospasm is the leading cause of morbidity and mortality in patients who are hospitalized because of aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH). Recent work has suggested that activation of the complement cascade contributes to the development of cerebral vasospasm. To further examine this hypothesis, a rabbit model of SAH was employed. METHODS Two milliliters of autologous arterial blood was injected into the region of the perimesencephalic cistern. Forty-eight hours after SAH was induced, intravital perfusion-fixation was performed. Morphometric analysis of the basilar artery was used to assess the extent of cerebral vasospasm after pretreatment with the complement depleting agent, cobra venom factor (CVF), or vehicle. Rabbits were randomized to one of four groups: 1) sham (n = 5); 2) sham + CVF (n = 4); 3) SAH (n = 10); or 4) SAH + CVF (n = 7). Twenty-four hours before induction of SAH, the animals received either 100 units/kg CVF or vehicle. The total hemolytic potential of the serum confirmed a significant (P < 0.05) reduction in serum complement activity 24 hours after the administration of CVF. RESULTS Pretreatment with CVF significantly (P < 0.0083) reduced the extent of vasospasm, as assessed by lumen diameter from 393.9 +/- 100.1 microns (mean +/- standard deviation) in the SAH group to 510.7 +/- 72.8 microns in the SAH + CVF group, when compared with the sham (594.5 +/- 27.9 microns) and sham + CVF (587.7 +/- 47.3 microns) groups. CONCLUSION The results suggest a role for complement activation in SAH.
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Affiliation(s)
- J W German
- Department of Surgery, University of Vermont College of Medicine, Burlington, USA
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Touho H, Karasawa J, Ohnishi H, Ueda S. Selective angiography of the vertebral artery in the rabbit: technical note. SURGICAL NEUROLOGY 1996; 46:84-6. [PMID: 8677495 DOI: 10.1016/0090-3019(95)00434-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Selective angiography of the vertebral arteries has not been performed in rabbit models. We used a tracker-10 microcatheter for selective vertebral artery angiography. METHODS Five Japanese male rabbits weighing 2.0 to 2.5 kg were used. The right femoral artery was identified and an 18-gauge Teflon catheter was introduced into the iliac artery. A Tracker-10 microcatheter was introduced through the 18-gauge Teflon catheter into the right vertebral artery under fluoroscopic guidance. RESULTS Selective angiograms of the right vertebral artery were obtained using a bolus injection of 0.1 mL of iopamidol in all five rabbits. CONCLUSIONS Selective vertebral artery angiograms could be obtained via the transfemoral route with the use of Tracker-10, and intraarterial selective administration of vasodilators will be achieved using our technique.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Touho
- Department of Neurosurgery, Osaka Neurological Institute, Japan
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Nagata K, Sasaki T, Mori T, Nikaido H, Kobayashi E, Kim P, Kirino T. Cisternal talc injection in dog can induce delayed and prolonged arterial constriction resembling cerebral vasospasm morphologically and pharmacologically. SURGICAL NEUROLOGY 1996; 45:442-7. [PMID: 8629244 DOI: 10.1016/0090-3019(95)00455-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The possible role of inflammation in the pathogenesis of cerebral vasospasm has been noted in recent studies. In order to examine the role of inflammation, we examined the vasocontractile activity of talc, which is known to cause severe inflammation, using a canine cisternal talc injection model. METHODS Under general anesthesia, a sterile talc powder suspended in saline was injected into the cisterna magna of the dog. Serial vertebral angiography and postmortem histologic changes of the harvested basilar artery were examined. The morphologic and pharmacologic features of talc-induced vessel spasm were compared with the usual autologous blood-induced artery spasm. RESULTS Cisternal injection of sterile talc powder caused no early spasm, but induced definite basilar arterial constriction 2 days after injection. This vascular constriction was observed to continue up to 7 days after injection. Ultrastructural study of the constricted vessel revealed several morphologic changes, such as corrugation of the elastic lamina, subintimal proliferation, migration of smooth muscle cells, detachment of endothelial cells, etc.; findings that are compatible with the changes observed in vasospasm. Pharmacologic study showed a moderate decrease in the maximal contraction to KCl and UTP. Endothelium-dependent relaxation was markedly disturbed, while endothelium-independent relaxation was preserved. These pharmacologic properties were also similar to those reported in vasospasm. CONCLUSIONS Our present study indicates that the several changes of vascular properties, which had been considered to be specific to cerebral vasospasm, can be regarded as a nonspecific biologic defense reaction against the foreign body. The analysis of the common pathway from talc and autologous blood to vasospasm may lead to the pathogenesis of cerebral vasospasm.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Nagata
- Department of Neurosurgery, Showa General Hospital, Tokyo, Japan
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Hans P. [Pharmacological therapeutic prospects of cerebral vasospasm]. ANNALES FRANCAISES D'ANESTHESIE ET DE REANIMATION 1996; 15:374-81. [PMID: 8758598 DOI: 10.1016/s0750-7658(96)80022-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
New therapies of cerebral vasospasm aim to prevent the effects of subarachnoid haemorrhage. These effects result in red blood cell haemolysis and release of oxyhaemoglobin, free radicals formation and lipid peroxidations, imbalance in endothelial modulation of vasomotor tone and activation of the complement system. Low doses of fibrinolytic agents administered intrathecally accelerate the fibrinolysis of the clot and reduce the oxyhaemoglobin release. The tissue-type plasminogen activator has proven to be effective in preventing vasospasm, but the modalities of this therapy remain to be defined. Free radical reactions may be inhibited by free radical scavengers and inhibitors of lipid peroxidations. Tirilazad is a potent inhibitor of lipid peroxidations, which improves the patients' outcome and has gone to Phase III human trials. Superoxide dismutase and tropolone derivatives are currently evaluated in animal models. Vasomotor tone can be modified in experimental models either by blocking endothelin receptors (BQ-123), or by facilitating the release and enhancing the effect of nitric oxide using protein kinase C inhibitors, drugs that increase intracellular calcium (cyclopiazonic acid, LP-805) and free radicals scavengers (superoxide dismutase). These possibilities are being investigated. Finally, preliminary studies have demonstrated the efficacy of FUT-175, an inhibitor of the complement system, in the prevention of vasospasm. In the next years, these new therapies have to be validated by prospective and randomized clinical trials to propose guidelines for the management of patients at risk of cerebral vasospasm after aneurysmal rupture.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Hans
- Service universitaire d'anesthésie-réanimation, CHR de la Citadelle, Liège, Belgique
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