Structure-activity relationships in kynurenine, diazepam and some putative endogenous ligands of the benzodiazepine receptors

Neuroinflammation and the Immune-Kynurenine Pathway in Anxiety Disorders

BACKGROUND

Recently, neuroinflammation and the immune-kynurenine pathway have received increased attention in the psychoimmunology field of major depressive disorder (MDD), while studies related to anxiety disorders have been very limited.

OBJECTIVE

This study reviewed possible mechanisms by which stress or inflammation modulate anxiety through tryptophan metabolism and the kynurenine pathway.

METHODS

Relevant literature was identified through a search of MEDLINE via PubMed.

RESULTS

Accumulating evidence has indicated the modulatory effects of the immune-kynurenine pathway on anxiety. The tryptophan catabolites (TRYCATs) in the kynurenine pathway imbalanced by stress or inflammation induce serotonin and melatonin deficiency, making anxiety reactions more sensitive. In addition, TRYCATs cause or sustain anxiety by acting as endogenous anxiogens or anxiolytics, an NMDA agonist or antagonist, or a free radical generator.

CONCLUSION

We hope that our understanding of the psychoimmunological mechanisms of anxiety will be expanded and anxiety-related studies will receive greater attention.

Serotonin-kynurenine hypothesis of depression: historical overview and recent developments

This mini-review focuses on the studies of late Prof. IP Lapin (1903 - 2012) and his research team on the role of methoxyindole and kynurenine (KYN) pathways of tryptophan (TRP) metabolism in the pathogenesis of depression and action mechanisms of antidepressant effect. In the late 60s of the last century Prof. IP Lapin suggested that "intensification of central serotoninergic processes is a determinant of the thymoleptic (mood elevating) component" while "activation of noradrenergic processes is responsible for psychoenergetic and motor-stimulating component of the clinical antidepressant effect". The cause of serotonin deficiency in depression was attributed to the shunt of TRP "metabolism away from serotonin production towards KYN production" due to cortisol-induced activation of liver enzyme, tryptophan 2,3- dioxygenase, the rate-limiting enzyme of TRP - KYN pathway. Prof. Lapin suggested and discovered that KYN and its metabolites affect brain functions, and proposed the role of neurokynurenines in pathogenesis of depression and action mechanisms of antidepressant effect (kynurenine hypothesis). Further research suggested the antidepressant and cognition- enhancing effects of post-serotonin metabolite, N-acetylserotonin (NAS), an agonist to tyrosine kinase B (TrkB) receptor; and link between depression and chronic inflammation-associated disorders (e.g., insulin resistance, hepatitis C virus) via inflammation-induced activation of indoleamine 2,3- dioxygenase, brain located rate-limiting enzyme of TRY - KYN metabolism. NAS and kynurenines might be the targets for prevention and treatment of depression and associated conditions.

Neurokynurenines (Neky) as Common Neurochemical Links of Stress and Anxiety

The following NEKY have been studied: 1-kynurenine (KYN), 3-hydroxyKYN (3HKYN), kynurenic (KYNA), anthranilic (ANT), 3-hydroxyANT (3HANT), quinolinic (QUIN), picolinic (PICA), xanthurenic (XAN), nicotinic (NIC) acids, 3-indole-pyruvate (IPA), nicotinamide (NAM). NEKY antagonize the central effects of precursors of serotonin (tryptophan and 5-HTP), and tryptamine as well. Seizures induced by central administration of KYN and QUIN are prevented by centrally injected dopamine and diminished by noradrenaline and adrenaline. KYN, 3HANT, PIC and NIC potentiate oxotremorine hypothermia mediated by acetylcholine. Central administration of GABA, glycine or taurine, as well as proline and melatonin, prevented seizures induced by QUIN and KYN. Behavioral inhibitory effects of these amino acids are diminished by pretreament with KYN, 3HKYN and QUIN. Elevation of concentrations of corticosteroids is resulted in rise of level of NEKY due to hormonal induction of liver tryptophan pyrrolase and brain 2,3 dioxigenase. NEKY, in their turn, activate both enzymes. Thus, a "vicious circle" is formed and it supports an elevated level of NEKY for a long time, hours and days. Long-lasting increased concentrations of NEKY in tissues can lead to significant after-effects and numerous pathogenic consequences. One can not exclude that a rise of the level of some NEKY, e.g. KYNA, IPA, PIC and XAN, may play an "adaptogenic" role in stress antagonizing some pathologic effects of KYN and QUIN, e.g. anxiogenic, neurotoxic and proconvulsive. It has been demonstrated that the excitatory NEKY, KYN, 3HKYN, QUIN, possess an anxiogenic activity in the standard animal models of anxiety. NEKY with opposite neuroactivities, namely KYNA, IPA, PICA and XAN, have a pharmacological profile of anxiolytics and antagonize both anxiogenic NEKY and standard anxiogens, like caffeine, pentylenetetrazole and yohimbine. Major emphasis is made on KYN as a putative endogenous anxiogen. Studies on the interaction of NEKY with other endogenous metabolites involved in anxiety (beta-phenylethylamine, cholecystokynine, melatonin) are in progress.

Anticonvulsant activity of melatonin against seizures induced by quinolinate, kainate, glutamate, NMDA, and pentylenetetrazole in mice

Melatonin was tested in an ongoing attempt to find the endogenous antagonists of quinolinic acid, an endogenous convulsant. Among a great number of metabolites that have been tried before, only a few were found (cerulein and quinaldic acid in mice and kynurenic acid in rats). In SHR (bred from Swiss) male mice, intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.) pretreatment with melatonin (1.25-10.0 microg) attenuated (in the descending order of potency) the convulsant effect of i.c.v. administered kainate, quinolinate, glutamate, N-methyl-D-aspartate, and pentylenetetrazole. Melatonin was ineffective against i.p. administered pentylenetetrazole. Systemically (intraperitoneal, i.p.) administered melatonin (12.5-100.0 mg/kg) attenuated the convulsant effect of quinolinate, while the action of other convulsants used remained unaltered. It is suggested that melatonin could be tried against grand mal seizures in epileptic patients.

The putative endogenous convulsant 3-hydroxykynurenine decreases benzodiazepine receptor binding affinity: implications to seizures associated with neonatal vitamin B-6 deficiency

The kynurenines, endogenous tryptophan metabolites with convulsant properties, have been postulated to play a role in the genesis of seizure disorders. We have previously reported that concentrations of 3-hydroxykynurenine (3-HK) higher than 0.2 mM are present in the brains of neonatal rats perinatally deprived of vitamin B-6. At a 1 mM concentration 3-HK significantly decreased the affinity of 3H-flunitrazepam for benzodiazepine receptor sites in rat brain membrane preparations. Furthermore, lower concentrations (Ki = 250 microM) of 3-HK antagonized the enhancing effect of GABA on 3H-flunitrazepam binding. These results suggest that 3-HK may have a modulatory effect on the GABA/benzodiazepine/barbiturate receptor complex.

Antagonism of seizures induced by the administration of the endogenous convulsant quinolinic acid into rat brain ventricles

The effect of pretreatment with drugs on generalized clonic-tonic seizures induced by intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.) administration of the endogenous convulsant quinolinic acid (QUIN, 50 micrograms) was studies in rats. Of the inhibitory amino acids tested, only 1-glycine (50 and 100 micrograms, i.c.v.) diminished the number of animals with seizures while taurine and GABA were ineffective. Of the kynurenine metabolites, only kynurenic acid (50 micrograms, i.c.v.) prevented seizures and lethality. Picolinic acid, nicotinic acid and nicotinamide were ineffective. The standard anticonvulsants phenobarbital, diphenylhydantoin and primidone were effective antagonists of QUIN-induced seizures at doses which did not influence pentylenetetrazol seizures. However, the only drug which completely prevented QUIN-induced seizures was diazepam (10 mg/kg). It also prevented pentylenetetrazol seizures in rats in a four times lower dose. The GABA derivatives sodium hydroxybutyrate and phenibut (beta-phenyl-GABA), which are effective QUIN-antagonists in mice, were found to be ineffective in rats. Species differences between rats and mice in the efficacy of antagonists QUIN are discussed.

The inhibitory effect of endogenous convulsants quinolinic acid and kynurenine on the pentobarbital stimulation of [3H]flunitrazepam binding

The metabolites of tryptophan-kynurenines with convulsant action quinolinic acid (QA) and l-kynurenine (l-KYN) antagonized the enhancing effect of pentobarbital (1 mM) on [3H]Flunitrazepam binding. IC50 for l-KYN were 35.9 +/- 14.8 microM and for QA 31.2 +/- 7.2 microM respectively. The inhibitory effect of KYN was stereoselective: IC50 of l-isomer was about two fold lower than IC50 of racemic form, d,l-KYN. Scatchard analysis revealed that inhibitory effect of QA and l-KYN on [3H]Flunitrazepam binding enhanced by pentobarbital is due to the decrease in affinity of benzodiazepine receptors. On the basis of these data it is proposed that QA and l-KYN possess their convulsant action interacting with barbiturate/picrotoxin sensitive sites of GABA-benzodiazepine-barbiturate complex.