1
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Api AM, Belsito D, Botelho D, Bruze M, Burton GA, Cancellieri MA, Chon H, Dagli ML, Dekant W, Deodhar C, Fryer AD, Jones L, Joshi K, Kumar M, Lapczynski A, Lavelle M, Lee I, Liebler DC, Moustakas H, Muldoon J, Na M, Penning TM, Ritacco G, Romine J, Sadekar N, Schultz TW, Selechnik D, Siddiqi F, Sipes IG, Sullivan G, Thakkar Y, Tokura Y. RIFM fragrance ingredient safety assessment, estragole, CAS registry number 140-67-0. Food Chem Toxicol 2023; 182 Suppl 1:114143. [PMID: 37898231 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2023.114143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2023] [Accepted: 10/24/2023] [Indexed: 10/30/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- A M Api
- Research Institute for Fragrance Materials, Inc., 50 Tice Boulevard, Woodcliff Lake, NJ, 07677, USA
| | - D Belsito
- Member Expert Panel for Fragrance Safety, Columbia University Medical Center, Department of Dermatology, 161 Fort Washington Ave., New York, NY, 10032, USA
| | - D Botelho
- Research Institute for Fragrance Materials, Inc., 50 Tice Boulevard, Woodcliff Lake, NJ, 07677, USA
| | - M Bruze
- Member Expert Panel for Fragrance Safety, Malmo University Hospital, Department of Occupational & Environmental Dermatology, Sodra Forstadsgatan 101, Entrance 47, Malmo, SE-20502, Sweden
| | - G A Burton
- Member Expert Panel for Fragrance Safety, School of Natural Resources & Environment, University of Michigan, Dana Building G110, 440 Church St., Ann Arbor, MI, 58109, USA
| | - M A Cancellieri
- Research Institute for Fragrance Materials, Inc., 50 Tice Boulevard, Woodcliff Lake, NJ, 07677, USA
| | - H Chon
- Research Institute for Fragrance Materials, Inc., 50 Tice Boulevard, Woodcliff Lake, NJ, 07677, USA
| | - M L Dagli
- Member Expert Panel for Fragrance Safety, University of Sao Paulo, School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, Department of Pathology, Av. Prof. dr. Orlando Marques de Paiva, 87, Sao Paulo, CEP 05508-900, Brazil
| | - W Dekant
- Member Expert Panel for Fragrance Safety, University of Wuerzburg, Department of Toxicology, Versbacher Str. 9, 97078, Würzburg, Germany
| | - C Deodhar
- Research Institute for Fragrance Materials, Inc., 50 Tice Boulevard, Woodcliff Lake, NJ, 07677, USA
| | - A D Fryer
- Member Expert Panel for Fragrance Safety, Oregon Health & Science University, 3181 SW Sam Jackson Park Rd., Portland, OR, 97239, USA
| | - L Jones
- Research Institute for Fragrance Materials, Inc., 50 Tice Boulevard, Woodcliff Lake, NJ, 07677, USA
| | - K Joshi
- Research Institute for Fragrance Materials, Inc., 50 Tice Boulevard, Woodcliff Lake, NJ, 07677, USA
| | - M Kumar
- Research Institute for Fragrance Materials, Inc., 50 Tice Boulevard, Woodcliff Lake, NJ, 07677, USA
| | - A Lapczynski
- Research Institute for Fragrance Materials, Inc., 50 Tice Boulevard, Woodcliff Lake, NJ, 07677, USA
| | - M Lavelle
- Research Institute for Fragrance Materials, Inc., 50 Tice Boulevard, Woodcliff Lake, NJ, 07677, USA
| | - I Lee
- Research Institute for Fragrance Materials, Inc., 50 Tice Boulevard, Woodcliff Lake, NJ, 07677, USA
| | - D C Liebler
- Member Expert Panel for Fragrance Safety, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Department of Biochemistry, Center in Molecular Toxicology, 638 Robinson Research Building, 2200 Pierce Avenue, Nashville, TN, 37232-0146, USA
| | - H Moustakas
- Research Institute for Fragrance Materials, Inc., 50 Tice Boulevard, Woodcliff Lake, NJ, 07677, USA
| | - J Muldoon
- Research Institute for Fragrance Materials, Inc., 50 Tice Boulevard, Woodcliff Lake, NJ, 07677, USA
| | - M Na
- Research Institute for Fragrance Materials, Inc., 50 Tice Boulevard, Woodcliff Lake, NJ, 07677, USA
| | - T M Penning
- Member of Expert Panel for Fragrance Safety, University of Pennsylvania, Perelman School of Medicine, Center of Excellence in Environmental Toxicology, 1316 Biomedical Research Building (BRB) II/III, 421 Curie Boulevard, Philadelphia, PA, 19104-3083, USA
| | - G Ritacco
- Research Institute for Fragrance Materials, Inc., 50 Tice Boulevard, Woodcliff Lake, NJ, 07677, USA
| | - J Romine
- Research Institute for Fragrance Materials, Inc., 50 Tice Boulevard, Woodcliff Lake, NJ, 07677, USA
| | - N Sadekar
- Research Institute for Fragrance Materials, Inc., 50 Tice Boulevard, Woodcliff Lake, NJ, 07677, USA
| | - T W Schultz
- Member Expert Panel for Fragrance Safety, The University of Tennessee, College of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Comparative Medicine, 2407 River Dr., Knoxville, TN, 37996- 4500, USA
| | - D Selechnik
- Research Institute for Fragrance Materials, Inc., 50 Tice Boulevard, Woodcliff Lake, NJ, 07677, USA
| | - F Siddiqi
- Research Institute for Fragrance Materials, Inc., 50 Tice Boulevard, Woodcliff Lake, NJ, 07677, USA
| | - I G Sipes
- Member Expert Panel for Fragrance Safety, Department of Pharmacology, University of Arizona, College of Medicine, 1501 North Campbell Avenue, P.O. Box 245050, Tucson, AZ, 85724-5050, USA
| | - G Sullivan
- Research Institute for Fragrance Materials, Inc., 50 Tice Boulevard, Woodcliff Lake, NJ, 07677, USA.
| | - Y Thakkar
- Research Institute for Fragrance Materials, Inc., 50 Tice Boulevard, Woodcliff Lake, NJ, 07677, USA
| | - Y Tokura
- Member Expert Panel for Fragrance Safety, The Journal of Dermatological Science (JDS), Department of Dermatology, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, 1-20-1 Handayama, Higashi-ku, Hamamatsu, 431-3192, Japan
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2
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Davidsen JM, Cohen SM, Eisenbrand G, Fukushima S, Gooderham NJ, Guengerich FP, Hecht SS, Rietjens IMCM, Rosol TJ, Harman CL, Taylor SV. FEMA GRAS assessment of derivatives of basil, nutmeg, parsley, tarragon and related allylalkoxybenzene-containing natural flavor complexes. Food Chem Toxicol 2023; 175:113646. [PMID: 36804339 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2023.113646] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2022] [Revised: 01/26/2023] [Accepted: 01/30/2023] [Indexed: 02/18/2023]
Abstract
In 2015, the Expert Panel of the Flavor and Extract Manufacturers Association (FEMA) initiated a program for the re-evaluation of the safety of over 250 natural flavor complexes (NFCs) used as flavoring ingredients in food. In this publication, tenth in the series, NFCs containing a high percentage of at least one naturally occurring allylalkoxybenzene constituent with a suspected concern for genotoxicity and/or carcinogenicity are evaluated. In a related paper, ninth in the series, NFCs containing anethole and/or eugenol and relatively low percentages of these allylalkoxybenzenes are evaluated. The Panel applies the threshold of toxicological concern (TTC) concept and evaluates relevant toxicology data on the NFCs and their respective constituent congeneric groups. For NFCs containing allylalkoxybenzene constituent(s), the estimated intake of the constituent is compared to the TTC for compounds with structural alerts for genotoxicity and when exceeded, a margin of exposure (MOE) is calculated. BMDL10 values are derived from benchmark dose analyses using Bayesian model averaging for safrole, estragole and methyl eugenol using EPA's BMDS software version 3.2. BMDL10 values for myristicin, elemicin and parsley apiole were estimated by read-across using relative potency factors. Margins of safety for each constituent congeneric group and MOEs for each allylalkoxybenzene constituent for each NFC were determined that indicate no safety concern. The scope of the safety evaluation contained herein does not include added use in dietary supplements or any products other than food. Ten NFCs, derived from basil, estragon (tarragon), mace, nutmeg, parsley and Canadian snakeroot were determined or affirmed as generally recognized as safe (GRAS) under their conditions of intended use as flavor ingredients based on an evaluation of each NFC and the constituents and congeneric groups therein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeanne M Davidsen
- Flavor and Extract Manufacturers Association, 1101 17th Street, N.W., Suite 700, Washington, D.C, 20036, USA
| | - Samuel M Cohen
- Havlik-Wall Professor of Oncology, Dept. of Pathology and Microbiology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, 983135 Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, 68198-3135, USA
| | - Gerhard Eisenbrand
- University of Kaiserslautern, Germany (Retired), Kühler Grund 48/1, 69126, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Shoji Fukushima
- Japan Bioassay Research Center, 2445 Hirasawa, Hadano, Kanagawa, 257-0015, Japan
| | - Nigel J Gooderham
- Dept. of Metabolism, Digestion, Reproduction, Imperial College London, Sir Alexander Fleming Building, London, SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | - F Peter Guengerich
- Dept. of Biochemistry, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN, 37232-0146, USA
| | - Stephen S Hecht
- Masonic Cancer Center and Dept. of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, Cancer and Cardiovascular Research Building, 2231 6th St, S.E, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA
| | - Ivonne M C M Rietjens
- Division of Toxicology, Wageningen University, Stippeneng 6708 WE, Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Thomas J Rosol
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Heritage College of Osteopathic Medicine, Ohio University, 1 Ohio University, Athens, OH, 45701, USA
| | - Christie L Harman
- Flavor and Extract Manufacturers Association, 1101 17th Street, N.W., Suite 700, Washington, D.C, 20036, USA
| | - Sean V Taylor
- Scientific Secretary to the FEMA Expert Panel, 1101 17th Street, N.W., Suite 700, Washington, D.C, 20036, USA.
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3
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Kobets T, Smith BPC, Williams GM. Food-Borne Chemical Carcinogens and the Evidence for Human Cancer Risk. Foods 2022; 11:foods11182828. [PMID: 36140952 PMCID: PMC9497933 DOI: 10.3390/foods11182828] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2022] [Revised: 09/07/2022] [Accepted: 09/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Commonly consumed foods and beverages can contain chemicals with reported carcinogenic activity in rodent models. Moreover, exposures to some of these substances have been associated with increased cancer risks in humans. Food-borne carcinogens span a range of chemical classes and can arise from natural or anthropogenic sources, as well as form endogenously. Important considerations include the mechanism(s) of action (MoA), their relevance to human biology, and the level of exposure in diet. The MoAs of carcinogens have been classified as either DNA-reactive (genotoxic), involving covalent reaction with nuclear DNA, or epigenetic, involving molecular and cellular effects other than DNA reactivity. Carcinogens are generally present in food at low levels, resulting in low daily intakes, although there are some exceptions. Carcinogens of the DNA-reactive type produce effects at lower dosages than epigenetic carcinogens. Several food-related DNA-reactive carcinogens, including aflatoxins, aristolochic acid, benzene, benzo[a]pyrene and ethylene oxide, are recognized by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) as causes of human cancer. Of the epigenetic type, the only carcinogen considered to be associated with increased cancer in humans, although not from low-level food exposure, is dioxin (TCDD). Thus, DNA-reactive carcinogens in food represent a much greater risk than epigenetic carcinogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tetyana Kobets
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, New York Medical College, Valhalla, NY 10595, USA
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-914-594-3105; Fax: +1-914-594-4163
| | - Benjamin P. C. Smith
- Future Ready Food Safety Hub, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 639798, Singapore
| | - Gary M. Williams
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, New York Medical College, Valhalla, NY 10595, USA
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4
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Applications of Essential Oils as Antibacterial Agents in Minimally Processed Fruits and Vegetables—A Review. Microorganisms 2022; 10:microorganisms10040760. [PMID: 35456810 PMCID: PMC9032070 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms10040760] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2022] [Revised: 03/25/2022] [Accepted: 03/29/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Microbial foodborne diseases are a major health concern. In this regard, one of the major risk factors is related to consumer preferences for “ready-to-eat” or minimally processed (MP) fruits and vegetables. Essential oil (EO) is a viable alternative used to reduce pathogenic bacteria and increase the shelf-life of MP foods, due to the health risks associated with food chlorine. Indeed, there has been increased interest in using EO in fresh produce. However, more information about EO applications in MP foods is necessary. For instance, although in vitro tests have defined EO as a valuable antimicrobial agent, its practical use in MP foods can be hampered by unrealistic concentrations, as most studies focus on growth reductions instead of bactericidal activity, which, in the case of MP foods, is of utmost importance. The present review focuses on the effects of EO in MP food pathogens, including the more realistic applications. Overall, due to this type of information, EO could be better regarded as an “added value” to the food industry.
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5
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Alkenylbenzenes in Foods: Aspects Impeding the Evaluation of Adverse Health Effects. Foods 2021; 10:foods10092139. [PMID: 34574258 PMCID: PMC8469824 DOI: 10.3390/foods10092139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2021] [Revised: 09/03/2021] [Accepted: 09/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Alkenylbenzenes are naturally occurring secondary plant metabolites, primarily present in different herbs and spices, such as basil or fennel seeds. Thus, alkenylbenzenes, such as safrole, methyleugenol, and estragole, can be found in different foods, whenever these herbs and spices (or extracts thereof) are used for food production. In particular, essential oils or other food products derived from the aforementioned herbs and spices, such as basil-containing pesto or plant food supplements, are often characterized by a high content of alkenylbenzenes. While safrole or methyleugenol are known to be genotoxic and carcinogenic, the toxicological relevance of other alkenylbenzenes (e.g., apiol) regarding human health remains widely unclear. In this review, we will briefly summarize and discuss the current knowledge and the uncertainties impeding a conclusive evaluation of adverse effects to human health possibly resulting from consumption of foods containing alkenylbenzenes, especially focusing on the genotoxic compounds, safrole, methyleugenol, and estragole.
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6
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Martins C, Rueff J, Rodrigues AS. Genotoxic alkenylbenzene flavourings, a contribution to risk assessment. Food Chem Toxicol 2018; 118:861-879. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2018.06.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2018] [Revised: 06/09/2018] [Accepted: 06/12/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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Minari J, Okelola C, Ugochukwu N. Analysis of Kras gene from induced pancreatic cancer rats administered with Momordicacharantia and Ocimumbasilicum leaf extracts. J Tradit Complement Med 2018; 8:282-288. [PMID: 29736383 PMCID: PMC5934705 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtcme.2017.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2017] [Revised: 04/06/2017] [Accepted: 04/07/2017] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To analyze K-ras gene from induced pancreatic cancer rats administered with Momordicacharantia and Ocimumbasilicum leaf extracts. METHODS Twenty-five (25) adult rats weighing between 90-120 g were divided into 5 groups namely RA, RB, RC, NC and PC, each group had 5 rats. The PC which served as the control was fed with normal fish meal and water ad libitum; the NC which is the negative control received 20 mg/ml/week of Nitrosamines only while other groups received different concentrations of aqueous extract of both M.charantia and O.basilicum (200 mg, 100 mg, 50 mg) and Nitrosamine. Qualitative phytochemical screening of the aqueous extract of both M.charantia and O.basilicum was carried out. The extraction of DNA was done using Jena Bioscience DNA preparation kit and the protocol was based on the spin column based genomic DNA purification from blood, animal and plant cells. Agarose gel electrophoresis was used to analyze the K-ras gene extracted from the pancreas tissues of experimental rats while hematoxylinand eosin staining was used for histological assay. RESULTS Phytochemical screening revealed the presence of alkaloids, tannins, flavonoids, saponins and glycosides in M.charantia while saponins, tannins and glycosides were discovered in O.basilicum. Significant reduction in the weight of rats treated with 200 mg of aqueous extracts of M.charantia and O.basilicum while rats that were dosed with nitrosamines only showed a slight increase in weight in the first three weeks when compared to the positive control. Histological studies revealed that there is both enlargement and reduction in the islet cell size, with one of the sections showing a normal islet cell size. While the agarose gel electrophoresis revealed that there may be possibility of prevention of damage to k-ras gene as a result of the effect of plants extract. CONCLUSION This work has shown that the leaf extracts of both M.charantia and O.basilicum will serve as a measure against induced pancreatic cancer in rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- J.B. Minari
- Department of Cell Biology and Genetics (Cancer and Infectious Disease Research Group Laboratory), University of Lagos, Akoka, Lagos, Nigeria
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8
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Oliveira CBS, Meurer YSR, Medeiros TL, Pohlit AM, Silva MV, Mineo TWP, Andrade-Neto VF. Anti-Toxoplasma Activity of Estragole and Thymol in Murine Models of Congenital and Noncongenital Toxoplasmosis. J Parasitol 2016; 102:369-76. [PMID: 26836848 DOI: 10.1645/15-848] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasmosis is caused by Toxoplasma gondii , an obligatory intracellular protozoan. Normally benign, T. gondii infections can cause devastating disease in immunosuppressed patients and through congenital infection of newborn babies. Few prophylactic and therapeutic drugs are available to treat these infections. The goal of the present study was to assess the anti-Toxoplasma effects in a congenital and noncongenital model of toxoplasmosis (using ME49 strain), besides assessing immunological changes, in vitro cytotoxicity, and in vivo acute toxicity of commercial estragole and thymol. The congenital experimental model was used with intermediate stages of maternal infection. The serum levels of immunoglobulin (Ig)M, IgG, interleukin (IL)-10, IL-12, and interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) were quantified from infected and treated C57Bl/6 mice. Estragole and thymol respectively exhibited low to moderate in vivo toxicity and cytotoxicity. Animals treated with estragole showed high IFN-γ and strong type 1 helper T cell response. Both compounds were active against T. gondii ME49 strain. Furthermore, orally administered estragole in infected pregnant mice improved the weight of offspring compared with untreated controls. Subcutaneous administration of both compounds also increased the weight of mouse offspring born to infected mothers, compared with untreated controls. Estragole and thymol display important anti-Toxoplasma activity. Further studies are needed to elucidate the mechanism of action of these compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudio B S Oliveira
- * Laboratory of Malaria and Toxoplasmosis Biology/LABMAT, Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, Bioscience Center, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Av. Salgado Filho, s/n, Lagoa Nova, Natal/RN, CEP 59000-000, Brazil
| | - Ywlliane S R Meurer
- * Laboratory of Malaria and Toxoplasmosis Biology/LABMAT, Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, Bioscience Center, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Av. Salgado Filho, s/n, Lagoa Nova, Natal/RN, CEP 59000-000, Brazil
| | - Thales L Medeiros
- * Laboratory of Malaria and Toxoplasmosis Biology/LABMAT, Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, Bioscience Center, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Av. Salgado Filho, s/n, Lagoa Nova, Natal/RN, CEP 59000-000, Brazil
| | | | | | | | - Valter F Andrade-Neto
- * Laboratory of Malaria and Toxoplasmosis Biology/LABMAT, Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, Bioscience Center, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Av. Salgado Filho, s/n, Lagoa Nova, Natal/RN, CEP 59000-000, Brazil
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9
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Ding W, Levy DD, Bishop ME, Pearce MG, Davis KJ, Jeffrey AM, Duan JD, Williams GM, White GA, Lyn-Cook LE, Manjanatha MG. In vivo genotoxicity of estragole in male F344 rats. ENVIRONMENTAL AND MOLECULAR MUTAGENESIS 2015; 56:356-365. [PMID: 25361439 DOI: 10.1002/em.21918] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2014] [Accepted: 10/03/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Estragole, a naturally occurring constituent of various herbs and spices, is a rodent liver carcinogen which requires bio-activation. To further understand the mechanisms underlying its carcinogenicity, genotoxicity was assessed in F344 rats using the comet, micronucleus (MN), and DNA adduct assays together with histopathological analysis. Oxidative damage was measured using human 8-oxoguanine-DNA-N-glycosylase (hOGG1) and EndonucleaseIII (EndoIII)-modified comet assays. Results with estragole were compared with the structurally related genotoxic carcinogen, safrole. Groups of seven-week-old male F344 rats received corn oil or corn oil containing 300, 600, or 1,000 mg/kg bw estragole and 125, 250, or 450 mg/kg bw safrole by gavage at 0, 24, and 45 hr and terminated at 48 hr. Estragole-induced dose-dependent increases in DNA damage following EndoIII or hOGG1 digestion and without enzyme treatment in liver, the cancer target organ. No DNA damage was detected in stomach, the non-target tissue for cancer. No elevation of MN was observed in reticulocytes sampled from peripheral blood. Comet assays, both without digestion or with either EndoIII or hOGG1 digestion, also detected DNA damage in the liver of safrole-dosed rats. No DNA damage was detected in stomach, nor was MN elevated in peripheral blood following dosing with safrole suggesting that, as far both safrole and estragole, oxidative damage may contribute to genotoxicity. Taken together, these results implicate multiple mechanisms of estragole genotoxicity. DNA damage arises from chemical-specific interaction and is also mediated by oxidative species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Ding
- Division of Genetic and Molecular Toxicology, US FDA/National Center for Toxicological Research, Jefferson, Arkansas
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10
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Akono Ntonga P, Baldovini N, Mouray E, Mambu L, Belong P, Grellier P. Activity of Ocimum basilicum, Ocimum canum, and Cymbopogon citratus essential oils against Plasmodium falciparum and mature-stage larvae of Anopheles funestus s.s. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014; 21:33. [PMID: 24995776 PMCID: PMC4082313 DOI: 10.1051/parasite/2014033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2014] [Accepted: 06/23/2014] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
Abstract
The biological activities of essential oils from three plants grown in Cameroon: Ocimum basilicum, Ocimum canum, and Cymbopogon citratus were tested against Plasmodium falciparum and mature-stage larvae of Anopheles funestus. Gas chromatography and gas chromatography - mass spectrometry analyses showed that the main compounds are geranial, 1,8-cineole and linalool in C. citratus, O. canum and O. basilicum, respectively. Larvicidal tests carried out according to the protocol recommended by the World Health Organization showed that the essential oil of leaves of C. citratus is the most active against larvae of An. funestus (LC50 values = 35.5 ppm and 34.6 ppm, respectively, for larval stages III and IV after 6 h of exposure). Besides, the in vitro anti-plasmodial activity evaluated by the radioisotopic method showed that the C. citratus oil is the most active against P. falciparum, with an IC50 value of 4.2 ± 0.5 μg/mL compared with O. canum (20.6 ± 3.4 μg/mL) and O. basilicum (21 ± 4.6 μg/mL). These essential oils can be recommended for the development of natural biocides for fighting the larvae of malaria vectors and for the isolation of natural products with anti-malarial activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick Akono Ntonga
- Laboratory of Animal Biology, Department of Animal Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Douala, P.O. Box 24157, Douala, Cameroon
| | - Nicolas Baldovini
- Institut de Chimie de Nice UMR 7272, Faculté des Sciences, University of Nice Sophia Antipolis, Parc Valrose, 06108 Nice, France
| | - Elisabeth Mouray
- Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, UMR 7245 CNRS, CP 52, 61 rue Buffon, 75231 Paris Cedex 05, France
| | - Lengo Mambu
- Université de Limoges, Laboratoire de Chimie des Substances Naturelles, EA 1069, Institut GEIST, Faculté de Pharmacie, 2 rue Docteur Marcland, 87025 Limoges Cedex, France
| | - Philippe Belong
- Higher Teacher Training College, University of Yaoundé I, Yaoundé, Cameroon
| | - Philippe Grellier
- Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, UMR 7245 CNRS, CP 52, 61 rue Buffon, 75231 Paris Cedex 05, France
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11
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Rietjens IMCM, Cohen SM, Fukushima S, Gooderham NJ, Hecht S, Marnett LJ, Smith RL, Adams TB, Bastaki M, Harman CG, Taylor SV. Impact of Structural and Metabolic Variations on the Toxicity and Carcinogenicity of Hydroxy- and Alkoxy-Substituted Allyl- and Propenylbenzenes. Chem Res Toxicol 2014; 27:1092-103. [DOI: 10.1021/tx500109s] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- I. M. C. M. Rietjens
- Division
of Toxicology, Wageningen University, Tuinlaan 5, 6703 HE Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - S. M. Cohen
- Department
of Pathology and Microbiology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, 4400 Emile Street, Omaha, Nebraska 68198, United States
| | - S. Fukushima
- Japan Bioassay Research
Center, 2445, Hirasawa, Hadano-shi, Kanagawa 257-0015, Japan
| | - N. J. Gooderham
- Department
of Surgery and Cancer, Imperial College, London SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | - S. Hecht
- Masonic
Cancer Center and Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of Minnesota, MMC 806, 420 Delaware St. SE, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - L. J. Marnett
- Department
of Biochemistry, Center in Molecular Toxicology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, 1161 21st Avenue S # T1217, Nashville, Tennessee 37232-0146, United States
| | - R. L. Smith
- Molecular
Toxicology, Imperial College, London SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | - T. B. Adams
- Verto Solutions, 1101,
17th Street NW Suite 700, Washington,
D.C. 20036, United States
| | - M. Bastaki
- Verto Solutions, 1101,
17th Street NW Suite 700, Washington,
D.C. 20036, United States
| | - C. G. Harman
- Verto Solutions, 1101,
17th Street NW Suite 700, Washington,
D.C. 20036, United States
| | - S. V. Taylor
- Verto Solutions, 1101,
17th Street NW Suite 700, Washington,
D.C. 20036, United States
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Villarini M, Pagiotti R, Dominici L, Fatigoni C, Vannini S, Levorato S, Moretti M. Investigation of the cytotoxic, genotoxic, and apoptosis-inducing effects of estragole isolated from fennel (Foeniculum vulgare). JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2014; 77:773-778. [PMID: 24617303 DOI: 10.1021/np400653p] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
The present study was undertaken to evaluate, in the HepG2 human hepatoma cell line, the in vitro cytotoxic, genotoxic, and apoptotic activities of estragole (1), contained in the essential oil of Foeniculum vulgare (fennel) and suspected to induce hepatic tumors in susceptible strains of mice. Toward this end, an MTT cytotoxicity assay, a trypan blue dye exclusion test, a double-staining (acridine orange and DAPI) fluorescence viability assay, a single-cell microgel-electrophoresis (comet) assay, a mitochondrial membrane potential (Δψm) assay, and a DNA fragmentation analysis were conducted. In terms of potential genotoxic effects, the comet assay indicated that estragole (1) was not able to induce DNA damage nor apoptosis under the experimental conditions used.
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Affiliation(s)
- Milena Villarini
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences (Unit of Public Health), University of Perugia , Via del Giochetto, 06122 Perugia, Italy
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Hégarat LL, Mourot A, Huet S, Vasseur L, Camus S, Chesné C, Fessard V. Performance of Comet and Micronucleus Assays in Metabolic Competent HepaRG Cells to Predict In Vivo Genotoxicity. Toxicol Sci 2014; 138:300-9. [DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfu004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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14
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van den Berg SJ, Klaus V, Alhusainy W, Rietjens IM. Matrix-derived combination effect and risk assessment for estragole from basil-containing plant food supplements (PFS). Food Chem Toxicol 2013; 62:32-40. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2013.08.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2013] [Revised: 07/31/2013] [Accepted: 08/08/2013] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
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15
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Bidri M, Conti M, Franetich JF, Tefit M, Mazier D, Arock M, Vouldoukis I. Fresh aromatic herbs containing methylchavicol did not exhibit the pro-oxidative effects of pure methylchavicol on a human hepatoma cell line, HepG2. ANNALES PHARMACEUTIQUES FRANÇAISES 2012; 70:256-63. [PMID: 23020916 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharma.2012.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2012] [Revised: 06/22/2012] [Accepted: 06/25/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Methylchavicol (CH(3)-CV), an important aromatic constituent of different plants like tarragon and basils, has been shown to be carcinogenic by a mechanism yet unclear, although it has been reported that carcinogenicity of CH(3)-CV in rodent might be linked to its metabolic conversion into a genotoxic electrophilic metabolite generated through a two steps bioactivation pathway catalyzed by cytochrome P450 enzymes and sulfotransferases. The induction of carcinogenesis by certain agents has been associated with the generation of oxidative stress. The aim of the present study was to determine whether pure methylchavicol applied on a human hepatoma cell line, HepG2, could promote oxidative stress and might alter the expression of procarcinogenic biomarkers such as the drug-metabolizing enzyme (CYP2E1), the inducible form of nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and might induce the expression of Cu/Zn-superoxide dismutase (Cu/Zn-SOD) and Mn-SOD that control the redox equilibrium of the cells. CH(3)-CV was shown to cause a significant induction of oxidative stress, as revealed by luminol-dependent chemiluminescence (LDCL) and to alter dramatically the expression of CYP2E1, iNOS and Mn-SOD, indicating that the toxic effect of CH(3)-CV could be mediated through a nitric oxide dependent mechanism. Under similar experimental conditions, the extracts from tarragon, chervil and basil did not induce such biological changes. These results provide evidence that the generation of an oxidative stress may be a significant event occurring during CH(3)-CV-induced toxicity. It also suggests that natural extracts containing different amounts of CH(3)-CV (tarragon, chervil and basil) did not elicit such toxicity and might contain compounds able to counteract this detrimental property.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Bidri
- Laboratoire de biologie des urgences, CHU Pitié-Salpêtrière, 83, boulevard de l'Hôpital, 75013 Paris, France
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Martins C, Cação R, Cole KJ, Phillips DH, Laires A, Rueff J, Rodrigues AS. Estragole: a weak direct-acting food-borne genotoxin and potential carcinogen. Mutat Res 2012; 747:86-92. [PMID: 22561883 DOI: 10.1016/j.mrgentox.2012.04.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2011] [Revised: 12/29/2011] [Accepted: 04/10/2012] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
We evaluated the genotoxicity of the food-flavouring agent estragole in V79 cells using the sister chromatid exchange (SCE) assay and the alkaline comet assay. Unexpectedly, we observed an increase in SCE without an exogenous biotransformation system (S9) and a decrease in its presence. Positive results were also observed in the alkaline comet assay without S9, indicating DNA strand breakage. To ascertain repair of damage, we performed the comet assay in V79 cells after two hours of recovery, and observed a reduction of the genotoxic response. Estragole did not produce strand breaks in plasmid DNA in vitro. We then evaluated the formation of DNA adducts in V79 cells by use of the (32)P-postlabelling assay and detected a dose-dependent formation of DNA adducts, which may be responsible for its genotoxicity. We then assayed estragole in the comet assay with two CHO cell lines, a parental AA8 cell line, and an XRCC1-deficient cell line, EM9. Results confirmed the genotoxicity of estragole without biotransformation in both cell lines, although the genotoxicity in EM9 cells compared with that in AA8 cells was not significantly different, suggesting that the XRCC1 protein is not involved in the repair of estragole-induced lesions. Estragole induces apoptosis, but only with high doses (2000μM), and after long treatment periods (24h). Overall, our results suggest that estragole, besides being metabolized to genotoxic metabolites, is a weak direct-acting genotoxin that forms DNA adducts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Célia Martins
- CIGMH, Department of Genetics, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, R. da Junqueira 100, P 1349-008 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Raquel Cação
- CIGMH, Department of Genetics, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, R. da Junqueira 100, P 1349-008 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Kathleen J Cole
- Institute of Cancer Research, Brookes Lawley Building, Cotswold Road, Sutton SM2 5NG, UK
| | - David H Phillips
- Institute of Cancer Research, Brookes Lawley Building, Cotswold Road, Sutton SM2 5NG, UK
| | - António Laires
- CIGMH, Department of Genetics, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, R. da Junqueira 100, P 1349-008 Lisboa, Portugal; Department of Life Sciences, Faculty of Sciences and Technology, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal
| | - José Rueff
- CIGMH, Department of Genetics, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, R. da Junqueira 100, P 1349-008 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - António S Rodrigues
- CIGMH, Department of Genetics, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, R. da Junqueira 100, P 1349-008 Lisboa, Portugal.
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Ding W, Levy DD, Bishop ME, Lyn-Cook Lascelles E, Kulkarni R, Chang CW, Aidoo A, Manjanatha MG. Methyleugenol Genotoxicity in the Fischer 344 Rat Using the Comet Assay and Pathway-Focused Gene Expression Profiling. Toxicol Sci 2011; 123:103-12. [DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfr153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
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18
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Kaefer C, Milner J. Herbs and Spices in Cancer Prevention and Treatment. OXIDATIVE STRESS AND DISEASE 2011. [DOI: 10.1201/b10787-18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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Abstract
In vitro hepatocyte models represent very useful systems in both fundamental research and various application areas. Primary hepatocytes appear as the closest model for the liver in vivo. However, they are phenotypically unstable, have a limited life span and in addition, exhibit large interdonor variability when of human origin. Hepatoma cell lines appear as an alternative but only the HepaRG cell line exhibits various functions, including major cytochrome P450 activities, at levels close to those found in primary hepatocytes. In vitro hepatocyte models have brought a substantial contribution to the understanding of the biochemistry, physiology, and cell biology of the normal and diseased liver and in various application domains such as xenobiotic metabolism and toxicity, virology, parasitology, and more generally cell therapies. In the future, new well-differentiated hepatocyte cell lines derived from tumors or from either embryonic or adult stem cells might be expected and although hepatocytes will continue to be used in various fields, these in vitro liver models should allow marked advances, especially in cell-based therapies and predictive and mechanistic hepatotoxicity of new drugs and other chemicals. All models will benefit from new developments in throughput screening based on cell chips coupled with high-content imaging and in toxicogenomics technologies.
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Smith B, Cadby P, Leblanc JC, Setzer RW. Application of the margin of exposure (MoE) approach to substances in food that are genotoxic and carcinogenic. Food Chem Toxicol 2010; 48 Suppl 1:S89-97. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2009.10.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2009] [Revised: 10/26/2009] [Accepted: 10/27/2009] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Nesslany F, Parent-Massin D, Marzin D. Risk assessment of consumption of methylchavicol and tarragon: the genotoxic potential in vivo and in vitro. Mutat Res 2009; 696:1-9. [PMID: 19913108 DOI: 10.1016/j.mrgentox.2009.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2009] [Revised: 10/19/2009] [Accepted: 10/30/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Methylchavicol (or estragole), a natural flavouring substance present in tarragon, was confirmed as a genotoxic chemical in the in vitro UDS test in cultured rat hepatocytes and in the in vivo UDS test in hepatocytes of exposed rats. Deep-frozen tarragon was clearly less genotoxic than methylchavicol at equivalent dose levels, and desiccated tarragon was negative. Both forms of tarragon tested in vitro have the ability to decrease significantly the genotoxicity of methylchavicol added to the culture medium at concentrations </=10 muM for deep-frozen and </=55 muM for desiccated tarragon. The decrease may be attributed to antimutagenic properties of tarragon leaves and/or to adsorption of methylchavicol, which would decrease its bioavailability. Desiccated tarragon powder was not genotoxic in the in vivo UDS test when administered up to the maximum dose of 6.25 g/kg bw (18.75 mg/kg bw of methylchavicol). In vivo, desiccated tarragon did not show antimutagenic properties, because it did not decrease the genotoxicity of methylchavicol added at high concentrations. Considering the low exposure level at the maximum daily tarragon consumption, the rapid detoxification and excretion in humans and the no-genotoxic-effect-level of methylchavicol by the oral route when given to rats as tarragon leaves, a high margin of exposure exists. We can conclude that tarragon consumption presents no genotoxic risk to humans.
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Arvidson KB, Valerio LG, Diaz M, Chanderbhan RF. In Silico Toxicological Screening of Natural Products. Toxicol Mech Methods 2008; 18:229-42. [DOI: 10.1080/15376510701856991] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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23
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Rietjens IM, Slob W, Galli C, Silano V. Risk assessment of botanicals and botanical preparations intended for use in food and food supplements: Emerging issues. Toxicol Lett 2008; 180:131-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2008.05.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2008] [Revised: 05/30/2008] [Accepted: 05/30/2008] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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24
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Jeurissen SMF, Punt A, Delatour T, Rietjens IMCM. Basil extract inhibits the sulfotransferase mediated formation of DNA adducts of the procarcinogen 1'-hydroxyestragole by rat and human liver S9 homogenates and in HepG2 human hepatoma cells. Food Chem Toxicol 2008; 46:2296-302. [PMID: 18433972 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2008.03.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2007] [Revised: 12/23/2007] [Accepted: 03/10/2008] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The effects of a basil extract on the sulfation and concomitant DNA adduct formation of the proximate carcinogen 1'-hydroxyestragole were studied using rat and human liver S9 homogenates and the human hepatoma cell line HepG2. Basil was chosen since it contains the procarcinogen estragole that can be metabolized to 1'-hydroxyestragole by cytochrome P450 enzymes. Basil extract addition to incubations of rat and human liver S9 homogenates with 1'-hydroxyestragole, the sulfotransferase cofactor PAPS, and 2'-deoxyguanosine resulted in a dose-dependent inhibition of N2-(trans-isoestragol-3'-yl)-2'-deoxyguanosine formation. Because the inhibition resembled the inhibition by the sulfotransferase inhibitor pentachlorophenol and since the inhibition was not observed in incubations with the direct electrophile 1'-acetoxyestragole it is concluded that the inhibition occurs at the level of the sulfotransferase mediated bioactivation step. Additional experiments in HepG2 cells revealed the same protective effect of basil extract in intact cells, demonstrating that the inhibitors are able to enter the cells. The results of this study suggest that bioactivation and subsequent adverse effects of 1'-hydroxyestragole might be lower in a matrix of other basil ingredients than what would be expected on the basis of experiments using 1'-hydroxyestragole as a single compound.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suzanne M F Jeurissen
- Division of Toxicology, Wageningen University, Tuinlaan 5, 6703 HE Wageningen, The Netherlands
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25
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Bakkali F, Averbeck S, Averbeck D, Idaomar M. Biological effects of essential oils--a review. Food Chem Toxicol 2007; 46:446-75. [PMID: 17996351 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2007.09.106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3309] [Impact Index Per Article: 194.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2006] [Revised: 08/23/2007] [Accepted: 09/21/2007] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Since the middle ages, essential oils have been widely used for bactericidal, virucidal, fungicidal, antiparasitical, insecticidal, medicinal and cosmetic applications, especially nowadays in pharmaceutical, sanitary, cosmetic, agricultural and food industries. Because of the mode of extraction, mostly by distillation from aromatic plants, they contain a variety of volatile molecules such as terpenes and terpenoids, phenol-derived aromatic components and aliphatic components. In vitro physicochemical assays characterise most of them as antioxidants. However, recent work shows that in eukaryotic cells, essential oils can act as prooxidants affecting inner cell membranes and organelles such as mitochondria. Depending on type and concentration, they exhibit cytotoxic effects on living cells but are usually non-genotoxic. In some cases, changes in intracellular redox potential and mitochondrial dysfunction induced by essential oils can be associated with their capacity to exert antigenotoxic effects. These findings suggest that, at least in part, the encountered beneficial effects of essential oils are due to prooxidant effects on the cellular level.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Bakkali
- Institut Curie-Section de Recherche, UMR2027 CNRS/IC, LCR V28 CEA, Bât. 110, Centre Universitaire, 91405 Orsay cedex, France; Université Abdelmalek Essâadi, Faculté des Sciences, Laboratoire de Biologie et Santé, BP 2121, Tétouan, Morocco
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26
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Alves PB, Filho PSF, Moraes VR, Blank AF, de Carvalho Filho JL, Arrigoni-Blank MDF, Oliva G, Thiemann OH. Chemical Composition of Essential Oil from SevenOcimum basilicumL. Accessions, Brine Shrimp Lethality Bioassay and Inhibitory Activities Against GAPDH and APRT. JOURNAL OF ESSENTIAL OIL RESEARCH 2007. [DOI: 10.1080/10412905.2007.9699236] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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27
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Rietjens IMCM, Boersma MG, van der Woude H, Jeurissen SMF, Schutte ME, Alink GM. Flavonoids and alkenylbenzenes: mechanisms of mutagenic action and carcinogenic risk. Mutat Res 2005; 574:124-38. [PMID: 15914212 DOI: 10.1016/j.mrfmmm.2005.01.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 172] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2004] [Revised: 12/13/2004] [Accepted: 01/10/2005] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The present review focuses on the mechanisms of mutagenic action and the carcinogenic risk of two categories of botanical ingredients, namely the flavonoids with quercetin as an important bioactive representative, and the alkenylbenzenes, namely safrole, methyleugenol and estragole. For quercetin a metabolic pathway for activation to DNA-reactive species may include enzymatic and/or chemical oxidation of quercetin to quercetin ortho-quinone, followed by isomerisation of the ortho-quinone to quinone methides. These quinone methides are suggested to be the active alkylating DNA-reactive intermediates. Recent results have demonstrated the formation of quercetin DNA adducts in exposed cells in vitro. The question that remains to be answered is why these genotoxic characteristics of quercetin are not reflected by carcinogenicity. This might in part be related to the transient nature of quercetin quinone methide adducts, and suggests that stability and/or repair of DNA adducts may need increased attention in in vitro genotoxicity studies. Thus, in vitro mutagenicity studies should put more emphasis on the transient nature of the DNA adducts responsible for the mutagenicity in vitro, since this transient nature of the formed DNA adducts may play an essential role in whether the genotoxicity observed in vitro will have any impact in vivo. For alkenylbenzenes the ultimate electrophilic and carcinogenic metabolites are the carbocations formed upon degradation of their 1'-sulfooxy derivatives, so bioactivation of the alkenylbenzenes to their ultimate carcinogens requires the involvement of cytochromes P450 and sulfotransferases. Identification of the cytochrome P450 isoenzymes involved in bioactivation of the alkenylbenzenes identifies the groups within the population possibly at increased risk, due to life style factors or genetic polymorphisms leading to rapid metaboliser phenotypes. Furthermore, toxicokinetics for conversion of the alkenylbenzenes to their carcinogenic metabolites and kinetics for repair of the DNA adducts formed provide other important aspects that have to be taken into account in the high to low dose risk extrapolation in the risk assessment on alkenylbenzenes. Altogether the present review stresses that species differences and mechanistic data have to be taken into account and that new mechanism- and toxicokinetic-based methods and models are required for cancer risk extrapolation from high dose experimental animal data to low dose carcinogenic risks for man.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivonne M C M Rietjens
- Division of Toxicology, Wageningen University, Tuinlaan 5, 6703 HE, Wageningen, The Netherlands.
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28
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Smith RL, Adams TB, Doull J, Feron VJ, Goodman JI, Marnett LJ, Portoghese PS, Waddell WJ, Wagner BM, Rogers AE, Caldwell J, Sipes IG. Safety assessment of allylalkoxybenzene derivatives used as flavouring substances - methyl eugenol and estragole. Food Chem Toxicol 2002; 40:851-70. [PMID: 12065208 DOI: 10.1016/s0278-6915(02)00012-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 152] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
This publication is the seventh in a series of safety evaluations performed by the Expert Panel of the Flavor and Extract Manufacturers' Association (FEMA). In 1993, the Panel initiated a comprehensive program to re-evaluate the safety of more than 1700 GRAS flavouring substances under conditions of intended use. In this review, scientific data relevant to the safety evaluation of the allylalkoxybenzene derivatives methyl eugenol and estragole is critically evaluated by the FEMA Expert Panel. The hazard determination uses a mechanism-based approach in which production of the hepatotoxic sulfate conjugate of the 1'-hydroxy metabolite is used to interpret the pathological changes observed in different species of laboratory rodents in chronic and subchronic studies. In the risk evaluation, the effect of dose and metabolic activation on the production of the 1'-hydroxy metabolite in humans and laboratory animals is compared to assess the risk to humans from use of methyl eugenol and estragole as naturally occurring components of a traditional diet and as added flavouring substances. Both the qualitative and quantitative aspects of the molecular disposition of methyl eugenol and estragole and their associated toxicological sequelae have been relatively well defined from mammalian studies. Several studies have clearly established that the profiles of metabolism, metabolic activation, and covalent binding are dose dependent and that the relative importance diminishes markedly at low levels of exposure (i.e. these events are not linear with respect to dose). In particular, rodent studies show that these events are minimal probably in the dose range of 1-10 mg/kg body weight, which is approximately 100-1000 times the anticipated human exposure to these substances. For these reasons it is concluded that present exposure to methyl eugenol and estragole resulting from consumption of food, mainly spices and added as such, does not pose a significant cancer risk. Nevertheless, further studies are needed to define both the nature and implications of the dose-response curve in rats at low levels of exposure to methyl eugenol and estragole.
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Affiliation(s)
- R L Smith
- Division of Biomedical Sciences, Section of Molecular Toxicology, Imperial College School of Medicine, South Kensington, London SW7 2AZ, UK
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Lazutka JR, Mierauskiene J, Slapsyte G, Dedonyte V. Genotoxicity of dill (Anethum graveolens L.), peppermint (Menthaxpiperita L.) and pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) essential oils in human lymphocytes and Drosophila melanogaster. Food Chem Toxicol 2001; 39:485-92. [PMID: 11313115 DOI: 10.1016/s0278-6915(00)00157-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Genotoxic properties of the essential oils extracted from dill (Anethum graveolens L.) herb and seeds, peppermint (Menthaxpiperita L.) herb and pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) needles were studied using chromosome aberration (CA) and sister chromatid exchange (SCE) tests in human lymphocytes in vitro, and Drosophila melanogaster somatic mutation and recombination test (SMART) in vivo. In the CA test, the most active essential oil was from dill seeds, then followed essential oils from dill herb, peppermint herb and pine needles, respectively. In the SCE test, the most active essential oils were from dill herb and seeds followed by essential oils from pine needles and peppermint herb. Essential oils from dill herb and seeds and pine needles induced CA and SCE in a clear dose-dependent manner, while peppermint essential oil induced SCE in a dose-independent manner. All essential oils were cytotoxic for human lymphocytes. In the SMART test, a dose-dependent increase in mutation frequency was observed for essential oils from pine and dill herb. Peppermint essential oil induced mutations in a dose-independent manner. Essential oil from dill seeds was almost inactive in the SMART test.
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Affiliation(s)
- J R Lazutka
- Department of Botany and Genetics, Vilnius University, 21 Ciurlionis St, 2009, Vilnius, Lithuania.
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Newberne P, Smith RL, Doull J, Goodman JI, Munro IC, Portoghese PS, Wagner BM, Weil CS, Woods LA, Adams TB, Lucas CD, Ford RA. The FEMA GRAS assessment of trans-anethole used as a flavouring substance. Flavour and Extract Manufacturer's Association. Food Chem Toxicol 1999; 37:789-811. [PMID: 10496381 DOI: 10.1016/s0278-6915(99)00037-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
This publication is the fourth in a series of safety evaluations performed by the Expert Panel of the Flavour and Extract Manufacturers' Association (FEMA). In 1993, the Panel initiated a comprehensive program to re-evaluate the safety of more than 1700 GRAS flavouring substances under conditions of intended use. In this review, scientific data relevant to the safety evaluation of trans-anethole (i.e. 4-methoxypropenylbenzene) as a flavouring substance is critically evaluated by the FEMA Expert Panel. The evaluation uses a mechanism-based approach in which production of the hepatotoxic metabolite anethole epoxide (AE) is used to interpret the pathological changes observed in different species and sexes of laboratory rodents in chronic and subchronic dietary studies. Female Sprague Dawley rats metabolize more trans-anethole to AE than mice or humans and, therefore, are the most conservative model for evaluating the potential for AE-induced hepatotoxicity in humans exposed to trans-anethole from use as a flavouring substance. At low levels of exposure, trans-anethole is efficiently detoxicated in rodents and humans primarily by O-demethylation and omega-oxidation, respectively, while epoxidation is only a minor pathway. At high dose levels in rats, particularly females, a metabolic shift occurs resulting in increased epoxidation and formation of AE. Lower activity of the "fast" acting detoxication enzyme epoxide hydrolase in the female is associated with more pronounced hepatotoxicity compared to that in the male. The continuous intake of high dose levels of trans-anethole (i.e. cumulative exposure) has been shown in dietary studies to induce a continuum of cytotoxicity, cell necrosis and cell proliferation. In chronic dietary studies in rats, hepatotoxicity was observed when the estimated daily hepatic production of AE exceeded 30 mg AE/kg body weight. In female rats, chronic hepatotoxicity and a low incidence of liver tumours were reported at a dietary intake of 550 mg trans-anethole/kg body weight/day. Under these conditions, daily hepatic production of AE exceeded 120 mg/kg body weight. Additionally, neither trans-anethole nor AE show any evidence of genotoxicity. Therefore, the weight of evidence supports the conclusion that hepatocarcinogenic effects in the female rat occur via a non-genotoxic mechanism and are secondary to hepatotoxicity caused by continuous exposure to high hepatocellular concentrations of AE. trans-Anethole was reaffirmed as GRAS (GRASr) based on (1) its low level of flavour intake (54 microg/kg body weight/day); (2) its metabolic detoxication pathway in humans at levels of exposure from use as a flavouring substance; (3) the lack of mutagenic or genotoxic potential; (4) the NOAEL of 120 mg trans-anethole/kg body weight/day in the female rat reported in a 2 + -year study which produces a level of AE (i.e. 22 mg AE/kg body weight/day) at least 10,000 times the level (0.002 mg AE/kg body weight day) produced from the intake of trans-anethole from use as a flavouring substance; and (5) the conclusion that a slight increase in the incidence of hepatocellular tumours in the high dose group (550 mg trans-anethole/kg body weight/day) of female rats was the only significant neoplastic finding in a 2+ -year dietary study. This finding is concluded to be secondary to hepatotoxicity induced by high hepatocellular concentrations of AE generated under conditions of the study. Because trans-anethole undergoes efficient metabolic detoxication in humans at low levels of exposure, the neoplastic effects in rats associated with dose-dependent hepatotoxicity are not indicative of any significant risk to human health from the use of trans-anethole as a flavouring substance.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Newberne
- Department of Pathology, Boston University, School of Medicine, Massachusetts, USA
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Bernáth J, Németh É, Kattaa A, Héthelyi É. Morphological and Chemical Evaluation of Fennel (Foeniculum vulgareMill.) Populations of Different Origin. JOURNAL OF ESSENTIAL OIL RESEARCH 1996. [DOI: 10.1080/10412905.1996.9700610] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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Marshall AD, Caldwell J. Lack of influence of modulators of epoxide metabolism on the genotoxicity of trans-anethole in freshly isolated rat hepatocytes assessed with the unscheduled DNA synthesis assay. Food Chem Toxicol 1996; 34:337-45. [PMID: 8641659 DOI: 10.1016/0278-6915(96)00109-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
The aniseed food flavour trans-anethole was implicated as a weak hepatocarcinogen only in female Sprague Dawley-CD rats administered high doses (1% in the diet for 121 wk). However, this substance is apparently non-genotoxic in a range of test systems. Anethole is metabolized in the rat along three primary pathways, one of which is epoxidation across the double bond of the side-chain. The epoxides of a number of the alkenylbenzene family of food flavours, of which anethole is a member, are putative genotoxins, being bacterial mutagens but not mammalian carcinogens. The authors have previously shown that the cytotoxicity of anethole is enhanced when the cellular epoxide defence mechanisms of conjugation with reduced glutathione and hydration by cytosolic epoxide hydrolase are severely compromised. They now report, however, that modulation of epoxide metabolism in cultured cells by the same mechanisms fails to induce unscheduled DNA synthesis (UDS) by anethole nor was there a UDS response in hepatocytes of female rats dosed with anethole in vivo. The epoxide of anethole was synthesized for the first time in this investigation and tested directly. As expected, it was markedly cytotoxic but not genotoxic. Anethole epoxide has chemical characteristics that differ from those of other structurally similar epoxides being labile to hydrolysis in aqueous media at physiological pH and temperature. This gives greater relevance to tests of its genotoxicity after formation within the hepatocyte rather than by adding the epoxide extracellularly to the culture medium. The direct and indirect demonstration of the lack of induction of UDS by anethole epoxide provides further support for the hypothesis that marginal hepatocarcinogenicity observed in female rats given 1% anethole in the diet for 121 wk was not initiated by a genotoxic event.
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Affiliation(s)
- A D Marshall
- Imperial College School of Medicine, St Mary's, London, UK
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