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Anderson LG, Vogiatzoglou E, Tang S, Luiz S, Duque T, Ghaly JP, Schwartzer JJ, Hales JB, Sabariego M. Memory deficits and hippocampal cytokine expression in a rat model of ADHD. Brain Behav Immun Health 2024; 35:100700. [PMID: 38107021 PMCID: PMC10724493 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbih.2023.100700] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2023] [Revised: 10/24/2023] [Accepted: 10/28/2023] [Indexed: 12/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a complex behavioral disorder characterized by hyperactivity, impulsivity, inattention, and deficits in working memory and time perception. While animal models have advanced our neurobiological understanding of this condition, there are limited and inconsistent data on working and elapsed time memory function. Inflammatory signaling has been identified as a key factor in memory and cognitive impairments, but its role in ADHD remains unclear. Additionally, the disproportionate investigation of male subjects in ADHD research has contributed to a poor understanding of the disorder in females. This study sought to investigate the potential connections between memory, neuroimmunology, and ADHD in both male and female animals. Specifically, we utilized the spontaneously hypertensive rat (SHR), one of the most extensively studied animal models of ADHD. Compared to their control, the Wistar-Kyoto (WKY) rat, male SHR are reported to exhibit several behavioral phenotypes associated with ADHD, including hyperactivity, impulsivity, and poor sustained attention, along with impairments in learning and memory. As the hippocampus is a key brain region for learning and memory, we examined the behavior of male and female SHR and WKY rats in two hippocampal-dependent memory tasks. Our findings revealed that SHR have delay-dependent working memory deficits that were similar to, albeit less severe than, those seen in hippocampal-lesioned rats. We also observed impairments in elapsed time processing in female SHR, particularly in the discrimination of longer time durations. To investigate the impact of inflammatory signaling on memory in these rats, we analyzed the levels of several cytokines in the dorsal and ventral hippocampus of SHR and WKY. Although we found some sex and genotype differences, concentrations were generally similar between groups. Taken together, our results indicate that SHR exhibit deficits in spatial working memory and memory for elapsed time, as well as some differences in hippocampal cytokine concentrations. These findings contribute to a better understanding of the neurobiological basis of ADHD in both sexes and may inform future research aimed at developing effective treatments for the disorder. Nonetheless, the potential mediating role of neuroinflammation in the memory symptomatology of SHR requires further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucy G. Anderson
- Program in Neuroscience and Behavior, Mount Holyoke College, South Hadley, MA, 01075, USA
| | | | - Shi Tang
- Program in Neuroscience and Behavior, Mount Holyoke College, South Hadley, MA, 01075, USA
| | - Sarah Luiz
- Program in Neuroscience and Behavior, Mount Holyoke College, South Hadley, MA, 01075, USA
| | - Turley Duque
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of San Diego, San Diego, CA, 92110, USA
| | - James P. Ghaly
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of San Diego, San Diego, CA, 92110, USA
| | - Jared J. Schwartzer
- Program in Neuroscience and Behavior, Mount Holyoke College, South Hadley, MA, 01075, USA
| | - Jena B. Hales
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of San Diego, San Diego, CA, 92110, USA
| | - Marta Sabariego
- Program in Neuroscience and Behavior, Mount Holyoke College, South Hadley, MA, 01075, USA
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Ferdousi MI, Calcagno P, Sanchez C, Smith KL, Kelly JP, Roche M, Finn DP. Characterization of pain-, anxiety-, and cognition-related behaviors in the complete Freund's adjuvant model of chronic inflammatory pain in Wistar-Kyoto rats. FRONTIERS IN PAIN RESEARCH 2023; 4:1131069. [PMID: 37113211 PMCID: PMC10126329 DOI: 10.3389/fpain.2023.1131069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2022] [Accepted: 03/20/2023] [Indexed: 04/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Chronic pain is often associated with comorbid anxiety and cognitive dysfunction, negatively affecting therapeutic outcomes. The influence of genetic background on such interactions is poorly understood. The stress-hyperresponsive Wistar-Kyoto (WKY) rat strain, which models aspects of anxiety and depression, displays enhanced sensitivity to noxious stimuli and impaired cognitive function, compared with Sprague-Dawley (SD) counterparts. However, pain- and anxiety-related behaviors and cognitive impairment following induction of a persistent inflammatory state have not been investigated simultaneously in the WKY rats. Here we compared the effects of complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA)-induced persistent inflammation on pain-, negative affect- and cognition-related behaviors in WKY vs. SD rats. Methods Male WKY and SD rats received intra-plantar injection of CFA or needle insertion (control) and, over the subsequent 4 weeks, underwent behavioral tests to assess mechanical and heat hypersensitivity, the aversive component of pain, and anxiety- and cognition-related behaviors. Results The CFA-injected WKY rats exhibited greater mechanical but similar heat hypersensitivity compared to SD counterparts. Neither strain displayed CFA-induced pain avoidance or anxiety-related behavior. No CFA-induced impairment was observed in social interaction or spatial memory in WKY or SD rats in the three-chamber sociability and T-maze tests, respectively, although strain differences were apparent. Reduced novel object exploration time was observed in CFA-injected SD, but not WKY, rats. However, CFA injection did not affect object recognition memory in either strain. Conclusions These data indicate exacerbated baseline and CFA-induced mechanical hypersensitivity, and impairments in novel object exploration, and social and spatial memory in WKY vs. SD rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mehnaz I. Ferdousi
- Pharmacology and Therapeutics, School of Medicine, University of Galway, Galway, Ireland
- Centre for Pain Research, University of Galway, Galway, Ireland
- Galway Neuroscience Centre, University of Galway, Galway, Ireland
| | - Patricia Calcagno
- Pharmacology and Therapeutics, School of Medicine, University of Galway, Galway, Ireland
- Centre for Pain Research, University of Galway, Galway, Ireland
- Galway Neuroscience Centre, University of Galway, Galway, Ireland
- Physiology, School of Medicine, University of Galway, Galway, Ireland
| | | | | | - John P. Kelly
- Pharmacology and Therapeutics, School of Medicine, University of Galway, Galway, Ireland
- Centre for Pain Research, University of Galway, Galway, Ireland
- Galway Neuroscience Centre, University of Galway, Galway, Ireland
| | - Michelle Roche
- Centre for Pain Research, University of Galway, Galway, Ireland
- Galway Neuroscience Centre, University of Galway, Galway, Ireland
- Physiology, School of Medicine, University of Galway, Galway, Ireland
| | - David P. Finn
- Pharmacology and Therapeutics, School of Medicine, University of Galway, Galway, Ireland
- Centre for Pain Research, University of Galway, Galway, Ireland
- Galway Neuroscience Centre, University of Galway, Galway, Ireland
- Correspondence: David P. Finn
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Redei EE, Udell ME, Solberg Woods LC, Chen H. The Wistar Kyoto Rat: A Model of Depression Traits. Curr Neuropharmacol 2023; 21:1884-1905. [PMID: 36453495 PMCID: PMC10514523 DOI: 10.2174/1570159x21666221129120902] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2022] [Revised: 09/19/2022] [Accepted: 10/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
There is an ongoing debate about the value of animal research in psychiatry with valid lines of reasoning stating the limits of individual animal models compared to human psychiatric illnesses. Human depression is not a homogenous disorder; therefore, one cannot expect a single animal model to reflect depression heterogeneity. This limited review presents arguments that the Wistar Kyoto (WKY) rats show intrinsic depression traits. The phenotypes of WKY do not completely mirror those of human depression but clearly indicate characteristics that are common with it. WKYs present despair- like behavior, passive coping with stress, comorbid anxiety, and enhanced drug use compared to other routinely used inbred or outbred strains of rats. The commonly used tests identifying these phenotypes reflect exploratory, escape-oriented, and withdrawal-like behaviors. The WKYs consistently choose withdrawal or avoidance in novel environments and freezing behaviors in response to a challenge in these tests. The physiological response to a stressful environment is exaggerated in WKYs. Selective breeding generated two WKY substrains that are nearly isogenic but show clear behavioral differences, including that of depression-like behavior. WKY and its substrains may share characteristics of subgroups of depressed individuals with social withdrawal, low energy, weight loss, sleep disturbances, and specific cognitive dysfunction. The genomes of the WKY and WKY substrains contain variations that impact the function of many genes identified in recent human genetic studies of depression. Thus, these strains of rats share characteristics of human depression at both phenotypic and genetic levels, making them a model of depression traits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva E. Redei
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Mallory E. Udell
- Department of Pharmacology, Addiction Science, and Toxicology, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, USA
| | - Leah C. Solberg Woods
- Section on Molecular Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC, USA
| | - Hao Chen
- Department of Pharmacology, Addiction Science, and Toxicology, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, USA
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Lack of Glutamate Receptor Subunit Expression Changes in Hippocampal Dentate Gyrus after Experimental Traumatic Brain Injury in a Rodent Model of Depression. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22158086. [PMID: 34360865 PMCID: PMC8347641 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22158086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2021] [Revised: 07/23/2021] [Accepted: 07/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) affects over 69 million people annually worldwide, and those with pre-existing depression have worse recovery. The molecular mechanisms that may contribute to poor recovery after TBI with co-morbid depression have not been established. TBI and depression have many commonalities including volume changes, myelin disruption, changes in proliferation, and changes in glutamatergic signaling. We used a well-established animal model of depression, the Wistar Kyoto (WKY) rat, to elucidate changes after TBI that may influence the recovery trajectory. We compared the histological and molecular outcomes in the hippocampal dentate gyrus after experimental TBI using the lateral fluid percussion injury (LFPI) in the WKY and the parent Wistar (WIS) strain. We showed that WKY had exaggerated myelin loss after LFPI and baseline deficits in proliferation. In addition, we showed that while after LFPI WIS rats exhibited glutamate receptor subunit changes, namely increased GluN2B, the WKY rats failed to show such injury-related changes. These differential responses to LFPI helped to elucidate the molecular characteristics that influence poor recovery after TBI in those with pre-existing depression and may lead to targets for future therapeutic interventions.
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Li JY, Kuo TBJ, Hung CT, Yang CCH. Voluntary exercise enhances hippocampal theta rhythm and cognition in the rat. Behav Brain Res 2020; 399:112916. [PMID: 32949643 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2020.112916] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2020] [Revised: 09/08/2020] [Accepted: 09/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Regular exercise promotes learning and memory functions. Theta activity is known to relate to various cognitive functions. An increase in theta power may be related to higher cognitive functioning and learning functions. However, evidence is lacking to directly confirm that exercise training can increase the theta activity and promote various cognitive functions simultaneously. We hypothesize that long-term voluntary exercise increases the activity of hippocampal theta rhythm and enhances memory behavior. We used the voluntary wheel running model and a training period of 8 weeks. We started the training when the rats were 12 weeks old. Before and after intervention, we performed a 24 -h electrophysiological recording and 8-arm radial maze test to analyze the hippocampal theta rhythm in awake stage, and spatial memory functions. We discovered that middle to high range frequency (6.5-12 Hz) of theta power was increased after exercise intervention. In addition, the working memory error of 8-arm radial maze test in the exercise group decreased significantly after the 8 weeks of treatment, and these reductions were negatively correlated with hippocampal theta activity. Our results demonstrate that 8-weeks voluntary exercise increases both hippocampal theta amplitude and spatial memory in the rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jia-Yi Li
- Department of Health and Leisure Management, Yuanpei University of Medical Technology, Hsinchu, Taiwan; Sleep Research Center, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Terry B J Kuo
- Sleep Research Center, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan; Institute of Brain Science, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan; Brain Research Center, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan; Department of Education and Research, Taipei City Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Chang-Tsen Hung
- Department of Health and Leisure Management, Yuanpei University of Medical Technology, Hsinchu, Taiwan
| | - Cheryl C H Yang
- Sleep Research Center, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan; Institute of Brain Science, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan; Brain Research Center, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan; Department of Education and Research, Taipei City Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan.
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Millard SJ, Weston-Green K, Newell KA. The Wistar-Kyoto rat model of endogenous depression: A tool for exploring treatment resistance with an urgent need to focus on sex differences. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2020; 101:109908. [PMID: 32145362 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2020.109908] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2019] [Revised: 01/31/2020] [Accepted: 03/03/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Major depressive disorder (MDD) is one of the leading causes of years lived with disability and contributor to the burden of disease worldwide. The incidence of MDD has increased by ~20% in the last decade. Currently antidepressant drugs such as the popular selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are the leading form of pharmaceutical intervention for the treatment of MDD. SSRIs however, are inefficient in ameliorating depressive symptoms in ~50% of patients and exhibit a prolonged latency of efficacy. Due to the burden of disease, there is an increasing need to understand the neurobiology underpinning MDD and to discover effective treatment strategies. Endogenous models of MDD, such as the Wistar-Kyoto (WKY) rat provide a valuable tool for investigating the pathophysiology of MDD. The WKY rat displays behavioural and neurobiological phenotypes similar to that observed in clinical cases of MDD, as well as resistance to common antidepressants. Specifically, the WKY strain exhibits increased anxiety- and depressive-like behaviours, as well as alterations in Hypothalamic Pituitary Adrenal (HPA) axis, serotonergic, dopaminergic and neurotrophic systems with emerging studies suggesting an involvement of neuroinflammation. More recent investigations have shown evidence for reduced cortical and hippocampal volumes and altered glutamatergic signalling in the WKY strain. Given the growing interest in therapeutics targeting the glutamatergic system, the WKY strain presents itself as a potentially useful tool for screening novel antidepressant drugs and their efficacy against treatment resistant depression. However, despite the sexual dimorphism present in the pathophysiology and aetiology of MDD, sex differences in the WKY model are rarely investigated, with most studies focusing on males. Accordingly, this review highlights what is known regarding sex differences and where further research is needed. Whilst acknowledging that investigation into a range of depression models is required to fully elucidate the underlying mechanisms of MDD, here we review the WKY strain, and its relevance to the clinic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel J Millard
- School of Medicine and Molecular Horizons, Faculty of Science, Medicine and Health, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, New South Wales 2522, Australia; Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute, Wollongong, New South Wales 2522, Australia.
| | - Katrina Weston-Green
- School of Medicine and Molecular Horizons, Faculty of Science, Medicine and Health, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, New South Wales 2522, Australia; Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute, Wollongong, New South Wales 2522, Australia.
| | - Kelly A Newell
- School of Medicine and Molecular Horizons, Faculty of Science, Medicine and Health, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, New South Wales 2522, Australia; Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute, Wollongong, New South Wales 2522, Australia.
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Aleksandrova LR, Wang YT, Phillips AG. Ketamine and its metabolite, (2R,6R)-HNK, restore hippocampal LTP and long-term spatial memory in the Wistar-Kyoto rat model of depression. Mol Brain 2020; 13:92. [PMID: 32546197 PMCID: PMC7296711 DOI: 10.1186/s13041-020-00627-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2020] [Accepted: 05/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Accumulating evidence implicates dysregulation of hippocampal synaptic plasticity in the pathophysiology of depression. However, the effects of ketamine on synaptic plasticity and their contribution to its mechanism of action as an antidepressant, are still unclear. We investigated ketamine’s effects on in vivo dorsal hippocampal (dHPC) synaptic plasticity and their role in mediating aspects of antidepressant activity in the Wistar-Kyoto (WKY) model of depression. dHPC long-term potentiation (LTP) was significantly impaired in WKY rats compared to Wistar controls. Importantly, a single low dose (5 mg/kg, ip) of ketamine or its metabolite, (2R,6R)-HNK, rescued the LTP deficit in WKY rats at 3.5 h but not 30 min following injection, with residual effects at 24 h, indicating a delayed, sustained facilitatory effect on dHPC synaptic plasticity. Consistent with the observed dHPC LTP deficit, WKY rats exhibited impaired hippocampal-dependent long-term spatial memory as measured by the novel object location recognition test (NOLRT), which was effectively restored by pre-treatment with both ketamine or (2R,6R)-HNK. In contrast, in WKYs, which display abnormal stress coping, ketamine, but not (2R,6R)-HNK, had rapid and sustained effects in the forced swim test (FST), a commonly used preclinical screen for antidepressant-like activity. The differential effects of (2R,6R)-HNK observed here reveal a dissociation between drug effects on FST immobility and dHPC synaptic plasticity. Therefore, in the WKY rat model, restoring dHPC LTP was not correlated with ketamine’s effects in FST, but importantly, may have contributed to the reversal of hippocampal-dependent cognitive deficits, which are critical features of clinical depression. Our findings support the theory that ketamine may reverse the stress-induced loss of connectivity in key neural circuits by engaging synaptic plasticity processes to “reset the system”.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lily R Aleksandrova
- Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.,Department of Psychiatry, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Yu Tian Wang
- Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada. .,Department of Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.
| | - Anthony G Phillips
- Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.,Department of Psychiatry, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
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Aleksandrova LR, Wang YT, Phillips AG. Evaluation of the Wistar-Kyoto rat model of depression and the role of synaptic plasticity in depression and antidepressant response. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2019; 105:1-23. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.07.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2019] [Revised: 06/10/2019] [Accepted: 07/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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Lim PH, Wert SL, Tunc-Ozcan E, Marr R, Ferreira A, Redei EE. Premature hippocampus-dependent memory decline in middle-aged females of a genetic rat model of depression. Behav Brain Res 2018; 353:242-249. [PMID: 29490235 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2018.02.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2017] [Revised: 02/01/2018] [Accepted: 02/21/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Aging and major depressive disorder are risk factors for dementia, including Alzheimer's Disease (AD), but the mechanism(s) linking depression and dementia are not known. Both AD and depression show greater prevalence in women. We began to investigate this connection using females of the genetic model of depression, the inbred Wistar Kyoto More Immobile (WMI) rat. These rats consistently display depression-like behavior compared to the genetically close control, the Wistar Kyoto Less Immobile (WLI) strain. Hippocampus-dependent contextual fear memory did not differ between young WLI and WMI females, but, by middle-age, female WMIs showed memory deficits compared to same age WLIs. This deficit, measured as duration of freezing in the fear provoking-context was not related to activity differences between the strains prior to fear conditioning. Hippocampal expression of AD-related genes, such as amyloid precursor protein, amyloid beta 42, beta secretase, synucleins, total and dephosphorylated tau, and synaptophysin, did not differ between WLIs and WMIs in either age group. However, hippocampal transcript levels of catalase (Cat) and hippocampal and frontal cortex expression of insulin-like growth factor 2 (Igf2) and Igf2 receptor (Igf2r) paralleled fear memory differences between middle-aged WLIs and WMIs. This data suggests that chronic depression-like behavior that is present in this genetic model is a risk factor for early spatial memory decline in females. The molecular mechanisms of this early memory decline likely involve the interaction of aging processes with the genetic components responsible for the depression-like behavior in this model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick H Lim
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL 60611, United States
| | - Stephanie L Wert
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL 60611, United States
| | - Elif Tunc-Ozcan
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL 60611, United States
| | - Robert Marr
- Department of Neuroscience, Chicago Medical School, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, North Chicago, IL 60064, United States
| | - Adriana Ferreira
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Biology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL 60611, United States
| | - Eva E Redei
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL 60611, United States.
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Ivlieva AL, Petritskaya EN, Rogatkin DA, Demin VA. Methodological Characteristics of the Use of the Morris Water Maze for Assessment of Cognitive Functions in Animals. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/s11055-017-0425-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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Feng P, Akladious AA, Hu Y. Hippocampal and motor fronto-cortical neuroligin1 is increased in an animal model of depression. Psychiatry Res 2016; 243:210-8. [PMID: 27423632 DOI: 10.1016/j.psychres.2016.06.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2016] [Revised: 05/09/2016] [Accepted: 06/26/2016] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Neuroligins (NLGNs) regulate synaptic excitability, neuronal signaling and sleep. We hypothesize that alteration of NLGNs is involved in the pathology of depression and tested the hypothesis in a model of depression using Wistar Kyoto (WKy) rat and its control, the Wistar (Wis) rat. We first evaluated behavioral deficits using the forced swim test and then characterized alterations of NLGN1 and NLGN2 with RT-PCR and Western Blotting in the prefrontal cortex, motor frontal cortex and hippocampus. Compared with controls of Wis rats, (1) the WKy rats had significantly shorter swim time and longer immobile time; (2) NLGN1 mRNA levels was higher in the motor frontal cortex and hippocampus in the WKy model; (3) NLGN1 protein was significantly higher in the motor frontal cortex, the prefrontal cortex and the hippocampus in the WKy model; (4) NLGN2 mRNA was significantly higher in the motor frontal cortex but significantly lower in the hippocampus in the WKy model. We concluded that NLGN1 gene and protein expression is higher in the motor frontal cortex, hippocampus and in the prefrontal cortex in the WKy rats suggesting that alterations of NLGN1 is involved in the pathology of depression but need to be further evaluated in human.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pingfu Feng
- Louis Stokes Cleveland DVA Medical Center, Cleveland, OH, USA; Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care and Sleep Medicine, Department of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA.
| | | | - Yufen Hu
- Louis Stokes Cleveland DVA Medical Center, Cleveland, OH, USA; Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care and Sleep Medicine, Department of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA
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Íbias J, Miguéns M, Pellón R. Effects of dopamine agents on a schedule-induced polydipsia procedure in the spontaneously hypertensive rat and in Wistar control rats. J Psychopharmacol 2016; 30:856-66. [PMID: 27296274 DOI: 10.1177/0269881116652598] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
The spontaneously hypertensive rat (SHR) has been proposed as an animal model for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and typically develops excessive patterns of response under most behavioural protocols. Schedule-induced polydipsia (SIP) is the excessive water consumption that occurs as a schedule effect when food is intermittently delivered and animals are partially food- but not water-deprived. SIP has been used as a model of excessive behaviour, and considerable evidence has involved the dopaminergic system in its development and maintenance. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of the most common psychostimulants used in ADHD treatment on SIP, comparing their effects in SHRs with rats from control populations. SHR, Wistar Kyoto (WKY) and Wistar rats were submitted to a multiple fixed time (FT) food schedule with two components: 30 s and 90 s. The acute effects of different dopaminergic compounds were evaluated after 40 sessions of SIP acquisition. All animals showed higher adjunctive drinking under FT 30 s than FT 90 s, and SHRs displayed higher asymptotic SIP levels in FT 90 s compared to WKY and Wistar rats. SHRs were less sensitive to dopaminergic agents than control rats in terms of affecting rates of adjunctive drinking. These differences point to an altered dopaminergic system in the SHR and provide new insights into the neurobiological basis of ADHD pharmacological treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Javier Íbias
- Animal Behaviour Laboratories, Departamento de Psicología Básica I, Facultad de Psicología, Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia (UNED), Madrid, Spain
| | - Miguel Miguéns
- Animal Behaviour Laboratories, Departamento de Psicología Básica I, Facultad de Psicología, Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia (UNED), Madrid, Spain
| | - Ricardo Pellón
- Animal Behaviour Laboratories, Departamento de Psicología Básica I, Facultad de Psicología, Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia (UNED), Madrid, Spain
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Kapadia M, Xu J, Sakic B. The water maze paradigm in experimental studies of chronic cognitive disorders: Theory, protocols, analysis, and inference. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2016; 68:195-217. [PMID: 27229758 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.05.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2016] [Revised: 05/03/2016] [Accepted: 05/19/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
An instrumental step in assessing the validity of animal models of chronic cognitive disorders is to document disease-related deficits in learning/memory capacity. The water maze (WM) is a popular paradigm because of its low cost, relatively simple protocol and short procedure time. Despite being broadly accepted as a spatial learning task, inference of generalized, bona fide "cognitive" dysfunction can be challenging because task accomplishment is also reliant on non-cognitive processes. We review theoretical background, testing procedures, confounding factors, as well as approaches to data analysis and interpretation. We also describe an extended protocol that has proven useful in detecting early performance deficits in murine models of neuropsychiatric lupus and Alzheimer's disease. Lastly, we highlight the need for standardization of inferential criteria on "cognitive" dysfunction in experimental rodents and exclusion of preparations of a limited scientific merit. A deeper appreciation for the multifactorial nature of performance in WM may also help to reveal other deficits that herald the onset of neurodegenerative brain disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minesh Kapadia
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurosciences, McMaster University, Psychology Building Rm. 303, 1280 Main St., West Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4K1, Canada
| | - Josie Xu
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurosciences, McMaster University, Psychology Building Rm. 303, 1280 Main St., West Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4K1, Canada
| | - Boris Sakic
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurosciences, McMaster University, Psychology Building Rm. 303, 1280 Main St., West Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4K1, Canada.
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Martínez-Membrives E, López-Aumatell R, Blázquez G, Cañete T, Tobeña A, Fernández-Teruel A. Spatial learning in the genetically heterogeneous NIH-HS rat stock and RLA-I/RHA-I rats: revisiting the relationship with unconditioned and conditioned anxiety. Physiol Behav 2015; 144:15-25. [PMID: 25747770 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2015.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2014] [Revised: 02/27/2015] [Accepted: 03/02/2015] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
To characterize learning/memory profiles for the first time in the genetically heterogeneous NIH-HS rat stock, and to examine whether these are associated with anxiety, we evaluated NIH-HS rats for spatial learning/memory in the Morris water maze (MWM) and in the following anxiety/fear tests: the elevated zero-maze (ZM; unconditioned anxiety), a context-conditioned fear test and the acquisition of two-way active avoidance (conditioned anxiety). NIH-HS rats were compared with the Roman High- (RHA-I) and Low-Avoidance (RLA-I) rat strains, given the well-known differences between the Roman strains/lines in anxiety-related behavior and in spatial learning/memory. The results show that: (i) As expected, RLA-I rats were more anxious in the ZM test, displayed more frequent context-conditioned freezing episodes and fewer avoidances than RHA-I rats. (ii) Scores of NIH-HS rats in these tests/tasks mostly fell in between those of the Roman rat strains, and were usually closer to the values of the RLA-I strain. (iii) Pigmented NIH-HS (only a small part of NIH-HS rats were albino) rats were the best spatial learners and displayed better spatial memory than the other three (RHA-I, RLA-I and NIH-HS albino) groups. (iv) Albino NIH-HS and RLA-I rats also showed better learning/memory than the RHA-I strain. (v) Within the NIH-HS stock, the most anxious rats in the ZM test presented the best learning and/or memory efficiency (regardless of pigmentation). In summary, NIH-HS rats display a high performance in spatial learning/memory tasks and a passive coping strategy when facing conditioned conflict situations. In addition, unconditioned anxiety in NIH-HS rats predicts better spatial learning/memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esther Martínez-Membrives
- Medical Psychology Unit, Department of Psychiatry and Forensic Medicine, Institute of Neurosciences, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193, Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Regina López-Aumatell
- Medical Psychology Unit, Department of Psychiatry and Forensic Medicine, Institute of Neurosciences, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193, Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Gloria Blázquez
- Medical Psychology Unit, Department of Psychiatry and Forensic Medicine, Institute of Neurosciences, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193, Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Toni Cañete
- Medical Psychology Unit, Department of Psychiatry and Forensic Medicine, Institute of Neurosciences, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193, Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Adolf Tobeña
- Medical Psychology Unit, Department of Psychiatry and Forensic Medicine, Institute of Neurosciences, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193, Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Alberto Fernández-Teruel
- Medical Psychology Unit, Department of Psychiatry and Forensic Medicine, Institute of Neurosciences, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193, Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain.
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Janke KL, Cominski TP, Kuzhikandathil EV, Servatius RJ, Pang KCH. Investigating the Role of Hippocampal BDNF in Anxiety Vulnerability Using Classical Eyeblink Conditioning. Front Psychiatry 2015; 6:106. [PMID: 26257661 PMCID: PMC4513557 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2015.00106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2015] [Accepted: 07/10/2015] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Dysregulation of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), behavioral inhibition temperament (BI), and small hippocampal volume have been linked to anxiety disorders. Individuals with BI show facilitated acquisition of the classically conditioned eyeblink response (CCER) as compared to non-BI individuals, and a similar pattern is seen in an animal model of BI, the Wistar-Kyoto (WKY) rat. The present study examined the role of hippocampal BDNF in the facilitated delay CCER of WKY rats. Consistent with earlier work, acquisition was facilitated in WKY rats compared to the Sprague Dawley (SD) rats. Facilitated acquisition was associated with increased BDNF, TrkB, and Arc mRNA in the dentate gyrus of SD rats, but learning-induced increases in BDNF and Arc mRNA were significantly smaller in WKY rats. To determine whether reduced hippocampal BDNF in WKY rats was a contributing factor for their facilitated CCER, BDNF or saline infusions were given bilaterally into the dentate gyrus region 1 h prior to training. BDNF infusion did not alter the acquisition of SD rats, but significantly dampened the acquisition of CCER in the WKY rats, such that acquisition was similar to SD rats. Together, these results suggest that inherent differences in the BDNF system play a critical role in the facilitated associative learning exhibited by WKY rats, and potentially individuals with BI. Facilitated associative learning may represent a vulnerability factor in the development of anxiety disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kellie L Janke
- Research Service, Neurobehavioral Research Laboratory, VA New Jersey Heath Care System , East Orange, NJ , USA ; Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, New Jersey Medical School, Rutgers Biomedical and Health Sciences , Newark, NJ , USA
| | - Tara P Cominski
- Research Service, Neurobehavioral Research Laboratory, VA New Jersey Heath Care System , East Orange, NJ , USA ; Veterans Biomedical Research Institute , East Orange, NJ , USA
| | - Eldo V Kuzhikandathil
- Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, New Jersey Medical School, Rutgers Biomedical and Health Sciences , Newark, NJ , USA ; Department of Pharmacology, Physiology and Neuroscience, New Jersey Medical School, Rutgers Biomedical and Health Sciences , Newark, NJ , USA
| | - Richard J Servatius
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology and Neuroscience, New Jersey Medical School, Rutgers Biomedical and Health Sciences , Newark, NJ , USA ; Syracuse VA Medical Center , Syracuse, NY , USA
| | - Kevin C H Pang
- Research Service, Neurobehavioral Research Laboratory, VA New Jersey Heath Care System , East Orange, NJ , USA ; Department of Pharmacology, Physiology and Neuroscience, New Jersey Medical School, Rutgers Biomedical and Health Sciences , Newark, NJ , USA
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Borsoi M, Antonio CB, Viana AF, Nardin P, Gonçalves CA, Rates SMK. Immobility behavior during the forced swim test correlates with BNDF levels in the frontal cortex, but not with cognitive impairments. Physiol Behav 2014; 140:79-88. [PMID: 25496978 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2014.12.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2014] [Revised: 12/03/2014] [Accepted: 12/04/2014] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The forced swim test (FST) is widely used to evaluate the antidepressant-like activity of compounds and is sensitive to stimuli that cause depression-like behaviors in rodents. The immobility behavior observed during the test has been considered to represent behavioral despair. In addition, some studies suggest that the FST impairs rats' performance on cognitive tests, but these findings have rarely been explored. Thus, we investigated the effects of the FST on behavioral tests related to neuropsychiatric diseases that involve different cognitive components: novel object recognition (NOR), the object location test (OLT) and prepulse inhibition (PPI). Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) levels in the frontal cortex and hippocampus were evaluated. The rats were forced to swim twice (15-min session followed by a 5-min session 24h later) and underwent cognitive tests 24h after the last swimming exposure. The FST impaired the rats' performance on the OLT and reduced the PPI and acoustic startle responses, whereas the NOR was not affected. The cognitive impairments were not correlated with an immobility behavior profile, but a significant negative correlation between the frontal BDNF levels and immobility behavior was identified. These findings suggest a protective role of BDNF against behavioral despair and demonstrate a deleterious effect of the FST on spatial memory and pre-attentive processes, which point to the FST as a tool to induce cognitive impairments analogous to those observed in depression and in other neuropsychiatric disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Milene Borsoi
- Graduate Studies Program in Neurosciences, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, 500 Sarmento Leite Street, ZIP code 90046-900 Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Camila Boque Antonio
- Graduate Studies Program in Pharmaceutical Sciences, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, 2752 Ipiranga Avenue, ZIP code 90610-000 Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Alice Fialho Viana
- Graduate Studies Program in Pharmaceutical Sciences, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, 2752 Ipiranga Avenue, ZIP code 90610-000 Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Patrícia Nardin
- Graduate Studies Program in Biochemistry, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, 2600 Ramiro Barcelos Street, ZIP code 90035-003 Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Carlos-Alberto Gonçalves
- Graduate Studies Program in Neurosciences, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, 500 Sarmento Leite Street, ZIP code 90046-900 Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil; Graduate Studies Program in Biochemistry, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, 2600 Ramiro Barcelos Street, ZIP code 90035-003 Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Stela Maris Kuze Rates
- Graduate Studies Program in Neurosciences, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, 500 Sarmento Leite Street, ZIP code 90046-900 Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil; Graduate Studies Program in Pharmaceutical Sciences, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, 2752 Ipiranga Avenue, ZIP code 90610-000 Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil.
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Kyeremanteng C, MacKay JC, James JS, Kent P, Cayer C, Anisman H, Merali Z. Effects of electroconvulsive seizures on depression-related behavior, memory and neurochemical changes in Wistar and Wistar-Kyoto rats. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2014; 54:170-8. [PMID: 24871798 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2014.05.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2014] [Revised: 05/05/2014] [Accepted: 05/20/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Investigations in healthy outbred rat strains have shown a potential role for brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis in the antidepressant and memory side effects of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT, or ECS in animals). The Wistar-Kyoto (WKY) rat strain is used as a genetic model of depression yet no studies to date have directly compared the impact of ECS on the WKY strain to its healthy outbred control (Wistar). OBJECTIVE The objective of this study is to examine behavioral (antidepressant and retrograde memory) and neurochemical (BDNF and HPA axis) changes immediately (1day) and at a longer delay (7days) after repeated ECS (5 daily administrations) in WKY and Wistar rats. METHODS Male Wistar and WKY rats received 5days of repeated ECS or sham treatment and were assessed 1 and 7days later for 1) depression-like behavior and mobility; 2) retrograde memory; and 3) brain BDNF protein, brain corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) and plasma corticosterone levels. RESULTS Both strains showed the expected antidepressant response and retrograde memory impairments at 1day following ECS, which were sustained at 7days. In addition, at 1day after ECS, Wistar and WKY rats showed similar elevations in brain BDNF and extra-hypothalamic CRF and no change in plasma corticosterone. At 7days after ECS, Wistar rats showed sustained elevations of brain BDNF and CRF, whereas WKY rats showed a normalization of brain BDNF, despite sustained elevations of brain CRF. CONCLUSIONS The model of 5 daily ECS was effective at eliciting behavioral and neurochemical changes in both strains. A temporal association was observed between brain CRF levels, but not BDNF, and measures of antidepressant effectiveness of ECS and retrograde memory impairments suggesting that extra-hypothalamic CRF may be a potential important contributor to these behavioral effects after repeated ECS/ECT.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Kyeremanteng
- School of Psychology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON K1N 6N5, Canada; University of Ottawa Institute of Mental Health Research, Ottawa, ON K1Z 7K4, Canada
| | - J C MacKay
- School of Psychology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON K1N 6N5, Canada; University of Ottawa Institute of Mental Health Research, Ottawa, ON K1Z 7K4, Canada
| | - J S James
- University of Ottawa Institute of Mental Health Research, Ottawa, ON K1Z 7K4, Canada
| | - P Kent
- University of Ottawa Institute of Mental Health Research, Ottawa, ON K1Z 7K4, Canada
| | - C Cayer
- University of Ottawa Institute of Mental Health Research, Ottawa, ON K1Z 7K4, Canada
| | - H Anisman
- Institute of Neuroscience, Carleton University, Ottawa, ON K1S 5B6, Canada; University of Ottawa Institute of Mental Health Research, Ottawa, ON K1Z 7K4, Canada
| | - Z Merali
- School of Psychology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON K1N 6N5, Canada; Department of Psychiatry, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON K1N 6N5, Canada; Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON K1N 6N5, Canada; University of Ottawa Institute of Mental Health Research, Ottawa, ON K1Z 7K4, Canada.
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18
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Alcohol preference, behavioural reactivity and cognitive functioning in female rats exposed to a three-bottle choice paradigm. Behav Brain Res 2012; 234:11-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2012.05.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2012] [Revised: 05/04/2012] [Accepted: 05/06/2012] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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19
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Statistical and theoretical considerations for the platform re-location water maze. J Neurosci Methods 2011; 198:44-52. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2011.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2010] [Revised: 03/04/2011] [Accepted: 03/04/2011] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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20
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Lewejohann L, Pickel T, Sachser N, Kaiser S. Wild genius - domestic fool? Spatial learning abilities of wild and domestic guinea pigs. Front Zool 2010; 7:9. [PMID: 20334697 PMCID: PMC2859863 DOI: 10.1186/1742-9994-7-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2009] [Accepted: 03/25/2010] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Domestic animals and their wild relatives differ in a wide variety of aspects. The process of domestication of the domestic guinea pig (Cavia aperea f. porcellus), starting at least 4500 years ago, led to changes in the anatomy, physiology, and behaviour compared with their wild relative, the wild cavy, Cavia aperea. Although domestic guinea pigs are widely used as a laboratory animal, learning and memory capabilities are often disregarded as being very scarce. Even less is known about learning and memory of wild cavies. In this regard, one striking domestic trait is a reduction in relative brain size, which in the domesticated form of the guinea pig amounts to 13%. However, the common belief, that such a reduction of brain size in the course of domestication of different species is accomplished by less learning capabilities is not at all very well established in the literature. Indeed, domestic animals might also even outperform their wild conspecifics taking advantage of their adaptation to a man-made environment. In our study we compared the spatial learning abilities of wild and domestic guinea pigs. We expected that the two forms are different regarding their learning performance possibly related to the process of domestication. Therefore wild cavies as well as domestic guinea pigs of both sexes, aged 35 to 45 days, were tested in the Morris water maze to investigate their ability of spatial learning. Results Both, wild cavies and domestic guinea pigs were able to learn the task, proving the water maze to be a suitable test also for wild cavies. Regarding the speed of learning, male as well as female domestic guinea pigs outperformed their wild conspecifics significantly. Interestingly, only domestic guinea pigs showed a significant spatial association of the platform position, while other effective search strategies were used by wild cavies. Conclusion The results demonstrate that domestic guinea pigs do not at all perform worse than their wild relatives in tests of spatial learning abilities. Yet, the contrary seems to be true. Hence, artificial selection and breeding did not lead to a cognitive decline but rather to an adaptation to man-made environment that allows solving the task more efficiently.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lars Lewejohann
- Department of Behavioural Biology, University of Münster, 48149 Münster, Germany.,Otto Creutzfeldt Center for Cognitive and Behavioral Neuroscience, University of Münster, Germany
| | - Thorsten Pickel
- Department of Behavioural Biology, University of Münster, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Norbert Sachser
- Department of Behavioural Biology, University of Münster, 48149 Münster, Germany.,Otto Creutzfeldt Center for Cognitive and Behavioral Neuroscience, University of Münster, Germany
| | - Sylvia Kaiser
- Department of Behavioural Biology, University of Münster, 48149 Münster, Germany.,Otto Creutzfeldt Center for Cognitive and Behavioral Neuroscience, University of Münster, Germany
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Aged wild-type littermates and APPswe+PS1/ΔE9 mice present similar deficits in associative learning and spatial memory independent of amyloid load. Genes Genomics 2010. [DOI: 10.1007/s13258-010-0833-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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22
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van der Staay FJ, Schuurman T, van Reenen CG, Korte SM. Emotional reactivity and cognitive performance in aversively motivated tasks: a comparison between four rat strains. BEHAVIORAL AND BRAIN FUNCTIONS : BBF 2009; 5:50. [PMID: 20003525 PMCID: PMC2805679 DOI: 10.1186/1744-9081-5-50] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2009] [Accepted: 12/15/2009] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cognitive function might be affected by the subjects' emotional reactivity. We assessed whether behavior in different tests of emotional reactivity is correlated with performance in aversively motivated learning tasks, using four strains of rats generally considered to have a different emotional reactivity. METHODS The performance of male Brown Norway, Lewis, Fischer 344, and Wistar Kyoto rats in open field (OF), elevated plus-maze (EPM), and circular light-dark preference box (cLDB) tasks, which are believed to provide measures of emotional reactivity, was evaluated. Spatial working and reference memory were assessed in two aversively motivated learning and memory tasks: the standard and the "repeated acquisition" versions of the Morris water maze escape task, respectively. All rats were also tested in a passive avoidance task. At the end of the study, levels of serotonin (5-HT) and 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid, and 5-HT turnover in the hippocampus and frontal cortex were determined. RESULTS Strain differences showed a complex pattern across behavioral tests and serotonergic measures. Fischer 344 rats had the poorest performance in both versions of the Morris water escape task, whereas Brown Norway rats performed these tasks very well but the passive avoidance task poorly. Neither correlation analysis nor principal component analysis provided convincing support for the notion that OF, EPM, and cLDB tasks measure the same underlying trait. CONCLUSIONS Our findings do not support the hypothesis that the level of emotional reactivity modulates cognitive performance in aversively motivated tasks. Concepts such as "emotional reactivity" and "learning and memory" cannot adequately be tapped with only one behavioral test. Our results emphasize the need for multiple testing.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Josef van der Staay
- Programme Emotion & Cognition, Department of Farm Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University Utrecht, PO Box 80151, 3508 TD Utrecht, the Netherlands
- BioMedical Research, Wageningen University and Research Center, Lelystad, the Netherlands
- Rudolf Magnus Institute of Neuroscience, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Teun Schuurman
- BioMedical Research, Wageningen University and Research Center, Lelystad, the Netherlands
| | - Cornelis G van Reenen
- Livestock Research, Wageningen University and Research Center, Lelystad, the Netherlands
| | - S Mechiel Korte
- Programme Emotion & Cognition, Department of Farm Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University Utrecht, PO Box 80151, 3508 TD Utrecht, the Netherlands
- Department of Psychopharmacology, Utrecht Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences (UIPS), Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
- Rudolf Magnus Institute of Neuroscience, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
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Rapid avoidance acquisition in Wistar–Kyoto rats. Behav Brain Res 2008; 192:191-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2008.04.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2007] [Revised: 04/01/2008] [Accepted: 04/09/2008] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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24
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The working memory capabilities of the spontaneously hypertensive rat. Physiol Behav 2008; 94:481-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2008.02.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2007] [Revised: 01/30/2008] [Accepted: 02/27/2008] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Bourque SL, Iqbal U, Reynolds JN, Adams MA, Nakatsu K. Perinatal iron deficiency affects locomotor behavior and water maze performance in adult male and female rats. J Nutr 2008; 138:931-7. [PMID: 18424604 DOI: 10.1093/jn/138.5.931] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Iron deficiency during early growth and development adversely affects multiple facets of cognition and behavior in adult rats. The purpose of this study was to assess the nature of the learning and locomotor behavioral deficits observed in male and female rats in the absence of depressed brain iron levels at the time of testing. Adult female Wistar rats were fed either an iron-enriched diet (>225 mg/kg Fe) or an iron-restricted diet (3 mg/kg Fe) for 2 wk prior to and throughout gestation, and a nonpurified diet (270 mg/kg Fe) thereafter. Open-field (OF) and Morris water maze (MWM) testing began when the offspring reached early adulthood (12 wk). At birth, perinatal iron-deficient (PID) offspring had reduced (P < 0.001) hematocrits (-33%), liver iron stores (-83%), and brain iron concentrations (-38%) compared with controls. Although there were no differences in iron status in adults, the PID males and females exhibited reduced OF exploratory behavior, albeit only PID males had an aversion to the center of the apparatus (2.5 vs. 6.9% in controls, P < 0.001). Additionally, PID males required greater path lengths to reach the hidden platform in the MWM, had reduced spatial bias for the target quadrant, and had a tendency for greater thigmotactic behavior in the probe trials (16.5 vs. 13.0% in controls; P = 0.06). PID females had slower swim speeds in all testing phases (-6.2%; P < 0.001). These results suggest that PID has detrimental programming effects in both male and female rats, although the behaviors suggest different mechanisms may be involved in each sex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephane L Bourque
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Queen's University, Kingston, Canada K7L 3N6
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26
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Glutamate-stimulated release of norepinephrine in hippocampal slices of animal models of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (spontaneously hypertensive rat) and depression/anxiety-like behaviours (Wistar–Kyoto rat). Brain Res 2008; 1200:107-15. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2008.01.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2007] [Revised: 01/02/2008] [Accepted: 01/03/2008] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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27
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Ji HJ, Chai HY, Nahm SS, Lee J, Bae GW, Nho K, Kim YB, Kang JK. Neuroprotective effects of the novel polyethylene glycol-hemoglobin conjugate SB1 on experimental cerebral thromboembolism in rats. Eur J Pharmacol 2007; 566:83-7. [PMID: 17397828 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2007.02.061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2006] [Revised: 02/25/2007] [Accepted: 02/28/2007] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
SunBio1 (SB1) is a novel polyethylene glycol-bovine hemoglobin conjugate. It is a small molecule that shows high oxygen-delivery capacity, and exhibits extended plasma half-life compared to hemoglobin alone, thus reducing renal toxicity. The aim of the present study was to evaluate potential neuroprotective effects of SB1 using a rat middle cerebral artery occlusion model. The middle cerebral artery of male Sprague-Dawley rats was occluded with a thrombotic blood clot and SB1 was administered via intra-arterial infusion 5 min after the operation. Brain tissue was harvested after 2 h, and cerebral infarct volumes were calculated from coronal sections stained with 2,3,5-triphenyltetrazolium chloride. Three to 6 days after the procedure, sub-groups of animals were subjected to an open field test and the Morris water maze to assess locomotor activity and learning/memory function. Thrombotic blood clots induced extensive brain infarction and edema; however, these were significantly reduced in SB1 treated animals. In addition, SB1 treatment increased locomotor activity in open field tests, and improved the learning/memory deficits caused by the thromboembolism. These results suggest that SB1 has neuroprotective effects against ischemic brain injury caused by thromboembolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyeong-Jin Ji
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Chungbuk National University, 12 Gaeshin-dong, Cheongju, Chungbuk 361-763, Republic of Korea
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Zheng H, Liu Y, Li W, Yang B, Chen D, Wang X, Jiang Z, Wang H, Wang Z, Cornelisson G, Halberg F. Beneficial effects of exercise and its molecular mechanisms on depression in rats. Behav Brain Res 2006; 168:47-55. [PMID: 16290283 PMCID: PMC2662337 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2005.10.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 144] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2005] [Revised: 10/02/2005] [Accepted: 10/10/2005] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Exercise showed the beneficial effects on mental health in depressed sufferers, whereas, its underlying mechanisms remained unresolved. This study utilized the chronic unpredictable stress (CNS) animal model of depression to evaluate the effects of exercise on depressive behaviors and spatial performance in rats. Furthermore, we tested the hypothesis that the capacity of exercise to reverse the harmful effects of CNS was relative to the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) system and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in the hippocampus. Animal groups were exposed to CNS for 4 weeks with and without access to voluntary wheel running. Stressed rats consumed significantly less of a 1% sucrose solution during CNS and exhibited a significant decrease in open field behavior. On the other hand, they showed impaired spatial performance in Morris water maze test 2 weeks after the end of CNS. Further, CNS significantly decreased hippocampal BDNF mRNA levels. However, voluntary exercise improved or even reversed these harmful behavioral effects in stressed rats. Furthermore, exercise counteracted a decrease in hippocampal BDNF mRNA caused by CNS. In addition, we also found that CMS alone increased circulating corticosterone (CORT) significantly and decreased hippocampal glucocorticoid receptor (GR) mRNA. At the same time, exercise alone increased CORT moderately and did not affect hippocampal GR mRNA levels. While, when both CNS and exercise were combined, exercise reduced the increase of CORT and the decrease of GR caused by CMS. The results demonstrated that: (1) exercise reversed the harmful effects of CNS on mood and spatial performance in rats and (2) the behavioral changes induced by exercise and/or CNS might be associated with hippocampal BDNF levels, and in addition, the HPA system might play different roles in the two different processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hang Zheng
- West China Medical Center, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, PR China
| | - Yanyou Liu
- West China Medical Center, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, PR China
| | - Wei Li
- West China Medical Center, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, PR China
| | - Bo Yang
- West China Medical Center, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, PR China
| | - Dengbang Chen
- West China Medical Center, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, PR China
| | - Xiaojia Wang
- West China Medical Center, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, PR China
| | - Zhou Jiang
- West China Medical Center, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, PR China
| | - Hongxing Wang
- Medical Experimental Animal Center, Sichuan Medical Academy, Chengdu, Sichuan 610046, PR China
| | - Zhengrong Wang
- West China Medical Center, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, PR China
| | - G. Cornelisson
- Halberg Chronobiology Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
| | - F. Halberg
- Halberg Chronobiology Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
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29
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Pezük P, Göz D, Aksoy A, Canbeyli R. BNST lesions aggravate behavioral despair but do not impair navigational learning in rats. Brain Res Bull 2006; 69:416-21. [PMID: 16624673 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2006.02.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2005] [Revised: 02/07/2006] [Accepted: 02/13/2006] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST) is a basal forebrain structure involved in many motivational processes closely linked to stress regulation. The present study investigated the effect of bilateral lesions of the BNST in male Wistar rats on behavioral despair and navigational learning in the Morris water maze both of which present stressful challenges. Compared to controls, BNST-lesioned animals displayed longer duration of immobility in the second of two forced swim tests used to assess behavioral despair but performed similarly in the water maze task. The present results indicate strongly that the BNST is involved in the modulation of behavioral despair. Experimentally induced depression by BNST lesions does not impair learning and memory in the water maze suggesting a possible dissociation between BNST-mediated depression and cognitive performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pinar Pezük
- Psychobiology Laboratory, Department of Psychology, Bogazici University, 34342 Bebek, Istanbul, Turkey
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30
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Pertovaara A, Haapalinna A, Sirviö J, Virtanen R. Pharmacological properties, central nervous system effects, and potential therapeutic applications of atipamezole, a selective alpha2-adrenoceptor antagonist. CNS DRUG REVIEWS 2006; 11:273-88. [PMID: 16389294 PMCID: PMC6741735 DOI: 10.1111/j.1527-3458.2005.tb00047.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Atipamezole is an alpha2-adrenoceptor antagonist with an imidazole structure. Receptor binding studies indicate that its affinity for alpha2-adrenoceptors and its alpha2/alpha1 selectivity ratio are considerably higher than those of yohimbine, the prototype alpha2-adrenoceptor antagonist. Atipamezole is not selective for subtypes of alpha2-adrenoceptors. Unlike many other alpha2-adrenoceptor antagonists, it has negligible affinity for 5-HT1A and I2 binding sites. Atipamezole is rapidly absorbed and distributed from the periphery to the central nervous system. In humans, atipamezole at doses up to 30 mg/subject produced no cardiovascular or subjective side effects, while at a high dose (100 mg/subject) it produced subjective symptoms, such as motor restlessness, and an increase in blood pressure. Atipamezole rapidly reverses sedation/anesthesia induced by alpha2-adrenoceptor agonists. Due to this property, atipamezole is commonly used by veterinarians to awaken animals from sedation/anesthesia induced by alpha2-adrenoceptor agonists alone or in combination with various anesthetics. Atipamezole increased sexual activity in rats and monkeys. In animals with sustained nociception, atipamezole increased pain-related responses by blocking the noradrenergic feedback inhibition of pain. In tests assessing cognitive functions, atipamezole at low doses has beneficial effects on alertness, selective attention, planning, learning, and recall in experimental animals, but not necessarily on short-term working memory. At higher doses atipamezole impaired performance in tests of cognitive functions, probably due to noradrenergic overactivity. Recent experimental animal studies suggest that atipamezole might have beneficial effects in the recovery from brain damage and might potentiate the anti-Parkinsonian effects of dopaminergic drugs. In phase I studies atipamezole has been well tolerated by human subjects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antti Pertovaara
- Institute of Biomedicine/Physiology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.
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31
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Prediger RDS, Fernandes D, Takahashi RN. Blockade of adenosine A2A receptors reverses short-term social memory impairments in spontaneously hypertensive rats. Behav Brain Res 2005; 159:197-205. [PMID: 15817183 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2004.10.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2004] [Revised: 10/25/2004] [Accepted: 10/28/2004] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR) exhibit impairment across several cognitive domains such as attention, short-term memory and spatial reference memory. These cognitive deficits have been variously attributed to disrupted dopaminergic, cholinergic and adenosinergic neurotransmitter function. However, social memory in SHR has not been investigated. In the present study, we therefore evaluated whether SHR exhibit altered short-term social memory abilities compared to normotensive Wistar rats (WIS) through two experimental paradigms (social recognition and habituation-dishabituation tests). We also compared the performance of SHR and WIS rats in the object recognition test. SHR exhibited significantly impaired performance in both models of social memory, but not in the object recognition test, demonstrating a selective deficit in the ability to recognize a juvenile rat after a short period of time. The administration of acute doses of the non-selective adenosine receptor antagonist caffeine (3.0 or 10.0 mg/kg, i.p.) and the adenosine A2A receptor antagonist 4-(2-[7-amino-2-[2-furyl][1,2,4]triazolo-[2,3-a][1,3,5]triazin-5-yl-amino]ethyl) phenol (ZM241385, 0.5 or 1.0 mg/kg, i.p.) but not the adenosine A1 receptor antagonist 8-cyclopentyl-1,3-dipropylxanthine (DPCPX, 1.0 or 3.0 mg/kg, i.p.) reversed this social memory impairment in SHR, but these treatments did not alter the hypertension state. These results demonstrate an impairment of short-term social memory in SHR and the involvement of the adenosine A2A receptors in this alteration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui D S Prediger
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Centro de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, UFSC, Campus Trindade, 88049-900 Florianópolis, SC, Brazil
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32
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Naudon L, Jay TM. Opposite behaviours in the forced swimming test are linked to differences in spatial working memory performances in the rat. Neuroscience 2005; 130:285-93. [PMID: 15664685 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2004.09.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/01/2004] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Despite consistent evidence of an association between depression and impaired memory performance, only a few studies have investigated memory processes in animal models of depression. The aim of the present study was to determine if rats selected for marked differences in their immobility response in the forced swimming test (FST, i.e. high-immobility, [HI] and low-immobility [LI] rats) exhibit differences in spatial and non-spatial memory performances. In a classic radial maze elimination task, we observed that HI rats made significantly more errors than LI rats, and their first error appeared significantly earlier. In a delayed spatial win-shift procedure where rats have to hold spatially relevant information in working memory across a 30 min delay, HI rats tended initially to perform more poorly than LI rats. HI rats made more across-phase errors, the occurrence of the first error was earlier and by the end of the experiment the differences between the two groups disappeared. Thus, HI rats present more difficulties to learn the rules in a spatial task and show weaker performances in spatial working memory in comparison to LI rats. On the other hand, performances in the two groups of animals were similar in a non-spatial task, the object recognition task. Complementary behavioral data indicate that the differences observed between the two groups are not attributable to opposite locomotor activities or to different levels of anxiety. Overall we can conclude that opposite swimming behavior in the FST could parallel some differences in cognitive performances, more specifically linked to spatial working memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Naudon
- Laboratoire de Physiopathologie des Maladies Psychiatriques, Développement et Vulnérabilité, E0117 INSERM-Centre Paul Broca, 2 ter rue d'Alésia, 75014 Paris, France.
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33
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Santucci AC, Mercado M, Bettica A, Cortes C, York D, Moody E. Residual behavioral and neuroanatomical effects of short-term chronic ethanol consumption in rats. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2004; 20:449-61. [PMID: 15268922 DOI: 10.1016/j.cogbrainres.2004.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/06/2004] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The residual effects of short-term chronic ethanol consumption were investigated in rats maintained on an ethanol liquid diet for 26 consecutive days (mean intake = 16.1 g/kg/day). Animals were assessed for spontaneous motor activity (12 days post-ethanol), spatial working memory (17 days post-ethanol), spatial reference memory (184 days post-ethanol), and retention of passive avoidance (201 days post-ethanol). Measurements of brain weights and cortical thickness vertices within the dorsomedial and ventrolateral cortex of eight coronal planes were determined 260 days post-ethanol. Two-dimensional cell profile densities within six coronal planes and within CA1 region of the hippocampus were also obtained, along with the total volumetric measurement of the hippocampus proper. Results indicated between group differences when subjects were assessed on working memory with ethanol-treated animals exhibiting longer escape latencies in a Morris water maze, an effect partially attributed to the perseverance of ethanol-treated animals in exhibiting thigmotaxicity. No other ethanol-related behavioral impairment was noted. Neuroanatomically, ethanol-treated rats had thinner cortical mantles (6.3% and 6.6% reductions) within the frontoparietal cortex and had lower two-dimensional cell profile densities within the most caudal cortical region studied. Interestingly, control animals with thicker cortical mantles tended to perform better on the working memory task, whereas the opposite was true for ethanol-treated subjects. These data led to the conclusion that chronic ethanol consumption of a relatively short duration produces working memory impairments, albeit mild, that are partially related to an inability to abandon ineffectual behavioral strategies, and also produces neuroanatomical alterations within the cortex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony C Santucci
- Department of Psychology, Manhattanville College, 2900 Purchase Street, Purchase, NY 10577, USA.
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34
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Ferguson SA, Cada AM. Spatial learning/memory and social and nonsocial behaviors in the Spontaneously Hypertensive, Wistar–Kyoto and Sprague–Dawley rat strains. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2004; 77:583-94. [PMID: 15006470 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2003.12.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2003] [Revised: 12/15/2003] [Accepted: 12/22/2003] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
The Spontaneously Hypertensive rat (SHR) is often described as less behaviorally reactive than its normotensive strain, the Wistar-Kyoto (WKY), although results are somewhat inconsistent across studies. In part, this may be due to the lack of a definitive characterization of "reactivity." Still, results from identical behavioral tests of SHR and WKY across studies are sometimes conflicting. Further, few comparisons with other rodent strains are available and these might provide guidance in outlining the meaning of reactivity. Here, social and nonsocial behaviors and spatial learning and memory were measured in male and female SHR, WKY, and Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats. Systolic blood pressure measurements at adulthood confirmed hypertension in the SHR. Juvenile play behavior indicated that SHRs were more sensitive to the strain of their play partner than were the WKY or SD, playing less with different strain partners than with same strain partners. However, adult dominance behavior (restricted access in a water competition test) indicated no strain differences. The SHR appeared to exhibit attenuated acoustic startle relative to the WKY and SD and their prepulse inhibition was substantially less at higher prepulse decibel intensities; however, this decreased prepulse inhibition was not the result of decreased startle during the test. Anxiety-related behavior in the elevated plus maze was most prominent in the SD strain, possibly as a result of poorer motor coordination as measured by rotarod performance. Elevated plus maze behavior as well as motor coordination did not differ between the SHR and WKY strains. Performance in the NCTR complex maze and the Morris water maze was significantly better in the SHR. These results do not support hypotheses of decreased behavioral reactivity in the SHR strain. Rather, they suggest complex interactions between social and nonsocial environments and the behavioral capabilities and requirements of the rat strain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sherry A Ferguson
- Division of Neurotoxicology, National Center for Toxicological Research/FDA, HFT-132, 3900 NCTR Road, Jefferson, AR 72079, USA.
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35
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Clements KM, Girard TA, Xing HC, Wainwright PE. Spontaneously hypertensive and Wistar Kyoto rats differ in delayed matching-to-place performance and response to dietary long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids. Dev Psychobiol 2003; 43:57-69. [PMID: 12794779 DOI: 10.1002/dev.10121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR) were used as an animal model of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). This study investigated whether, in comparison with its progenitor strain, Wistar-Kyoto rats (WKY), SHR would show deficits in spatial short-term memory in the delayed-matching-to-place (DMP) version of the Morris water maze and be more distracted by exposure to a novel stimulus during recall trials. It also addressed whether dietary supplementation with long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFA) during development would increase brain docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and improve SHR behavioral performance. Beginning at weaning (21 days), male SHR and WKY were fed either a control or LCPUFA supplemented diet [0.5% arachidonic acid (AA) and 0.9% DHA], and behavioral testing began at 8 weeks. The first three tasks comprised a series of problems, each consisting of an initial search trial and subsequent recall trials. The intertrial interval (ITI) between the search and recall trial was either 60 s or 60 min. Surprisingly, in contrast to SHR, WKY did not appear to use a spatial short-term memory strategy to solve the problem. Notwithstanding, the performance of both strains was affected by the delay, such that they showed longer path lengths at the long compared with the short ITI. There was no effect of dietary supplementation on DMP performance. SHR fed the control diet were less responsive to a novel stimulus introduced on the first recall trial than WKY, and this tended to increase with supplementation. Analysis of brain fatty acid composition indicated that supplementation did increase DHA in the phosphatidylethanolamine fraction in WKY; however, in SHR, there was either no change (phosphatidylethanolamine) or paradoxical decreases (phosphatidylcholine and phosphatidyserine/phosphatidylinositol). Further research is needed to determine whether SHR are an appropriate model for studying a possible relationship between dietary LCPUFA and the behavioral symptoms of ADHD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Koreen M Clements
- Department of Psychology, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, N2L 3G1 Canada.
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36
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Abstract
Spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR) represent an animal model of cognitive decline associated with hypertension. Few studies have systematically investigated this decline in aging. We assessed spatial learning performances of SHR, the genetically similar Wistar-Kyoto rats (WKY), and Sprague-Dawley rats (SD), in a water maze (WM) task. The following age ranges were studied: 6, 12, and 20 months. The results demonstrated that all three strains show the same level of impairment at the age of 20 months. The rate of cognitive decline, however, is different: both SHR and WKY show moderate degrees of impairment at all age ranges, while SD display good cognitive abilities at 6 months, declining at 12, and reaching the performance level of the other two groups at 20 months. Besides, the nine groups showed substantial differences in swim velocity and WKY exhibited a peculiar motor behavior. These results suggest the following: (a) the decline in cognitive level exhibits different trends in the three strains; (b) learning impairment of aged SHR might not be entirely explained by hypertension; (c) WKY should be used cautiously as normotensive control for SHR, due to their unusual behavior and low learning abilities; (d) analysis of escape distances is mandatory for the comparison of different strains in the WM test.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giovanni Diana
- Laboratorio di Farmacologia, Istituto Superiore di Sanita', Viale Regina Elena 299-00161 Rome, Italy.
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37
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Johansson IM, Birzniece V, Lindblad C, Olsson T, Bäckström T. Allopregnanolone inhibits learning in the Morris water maze. Brain Res 2002; 934:125-31. [PMID: 11955475 DOI: 10.1016/s0006-8993(02)02414-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 158] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The progesterone metabolite allopregnanolone (3alpha-OH-5alpha-pregnane-20-one) inhibits neural functions, enhancing the GABA induced GABA(A) receptor activation. This effect is benzodiazepine like and benzodiazepines are known to impair memory. Acute effects of allopregnanolone on the hippocampus dependent spatial learning in the Morris water maze have not been studied. Adult male Wistar rats where injected (i.v.) with allopregnanolone (2 mg/kg), or vehicle, daily for 11 days. At 8 or 20 min after each injection, studies of place navigation were performed in the Morris water maze. Allopregnanolone concentrations in plasma and in nine different brain areas where analyzed by radioimmunoassay. The latency to find the platform was increased 8 min after the allopregnanolone injection, while normal learning was seen after 20 min. Swim speed did not differ between groups. A higher number of rats were swimming close to the pool wall (thigmotaxis) in the 8 min allopregnanolone group compared to the other groups. Allopregnanolone concentrations in the brain tissue at 8 min were 1.5 to 2.5 times higher then at 20 min after the allopregnanolone injections. After vehicle injections the brain concentrations of allopregnanolone were at control levels. Plasma concentrations of allopregnanolone followed the same pattern as in the brain, with the exception of an increase 8 min after vehicle injections. The natural progesterone metabolite allopregnanolone can inhibit learning in the Morris water maze, an effect not caused by motor impairment. The learning impairment might be due to a combination of changed swimming behavior and difficulties in navigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Inga Maj Johansson
- Department of Clinical Science, Obstetrics and Gynecology, UKBF 3B, 2nd floor, Umeå University Hospital, S.E.-901 85, Umeå, Sweden.
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38
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Shapira S, Sapir M, Wengier A, Grauer E, Kadar T. Aging has a complex effect on a rat model of ischemic stroke. Brain Res 2002; 925:148-58. [PMID: 11792363 DOI: 10.1016/s0006-8993(01)03270-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Stroke in humans is usually associated with advanced age. Nevertheless, almost all animal models of ischemic stroke are based on young animals. The present study was designed to assess the effect of age on the development of ischemic injury in a model of focal brain ischemia in rats. Two age groups of Wistar rats were used: young adult (3 months) and old (24-26 months). Under halothane anesthesia, polyethylene microspheres (50 microm in diameter) were injected into the left common carotid artery following a temporary occlusion of the external carotid artery. Sham-operated rats underwent the same procedure but were injected with an identical volume (100 microl) of saline only. Rats of both experimental groups displayed neurological impairment after surgery. However, contrary to expectation, the young rats were more affected than the old rats. Young rats displayed an abrupt 30% decrement in neurological functions in the first week and then showed a partial functional recovery into a 12% decrement from the second week on. Old rats developed the neurological impairment gradually over a 2-week period (6.3% in the first week and 11% in the second week and thereafter). One month later, rats were tested in a water maze task. Again, performance was more impaired in the young ischemic rats than in the old rats. Histological evaluation revealed more extensive neurological damage in young ischemic as compared to old rats. Thus, although increased age has a critical effect on the evolution of the neurological impairment following focal brain ischemia and stroke, its effects in the rat model were more pronounced in the young animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shlomo Shapira
- Department of Pharmacology, Israel Institute for Biological Research, P.O. Box 19, Ness-Ziona, 74100, Israel.
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D'Hooge R, De Deyn PP. Applications of the Morris water maze in the study of learning and memory. BRAIN RESEARCH. BRAIN RESEARCH REVIEWS 2001; 36:60-90. [PMID: 11516773 DOI: 10.1016/s0165-0173(01)00067-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1386] [Impact Index Per Article: 60.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The Morris water maze (MWM) was described 20 years ago as a device to investigate spatial learning and memory in laboratory rats. In the meanwhile, it has become one of the most frequently used laboratory tools in behavioral neuroscience. Many methodological variations of the MWM task have been and are being used by research groups in many different applications. However, researchers have become increasingly aware that MWM performance is influenced by factors such as apparatus or training procedure as well as by the characteristics of the experimental animals (sex, species/strain, age, nutritional state, exposure to stress or infection). Lesions in distinct brain regions like hippocampus, striatum, basal forebrain, cerebellum and cerebral cortex were shown to impair MWM performance, but disconnecting rather than destroying brain regions relevant for spatial learning may impair MWM performance as well. Spatial learning in general and MWM performance in particular appear to depend upon the coordinated action of different brain regions and neurotransmitter systems constituting a functionally integrated neural network. Finally, the MWM task has often been used in the validation of rodent models for neurocognitive disorders and the evaluation of possible neurocognitive treatments. Through its many applications, MWM testing gained a position at the very core of contemporary neuroscience research.
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Affiliation(s)
- R D'Hooge
- Laboratory of Neurochemistry and Behavior, Born-Bunge Foundation, and Department of Neurology/Memory Clinic, Middelheim Hospital, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, B-2610, Antwerp, Belgium.
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40
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Le Pen G, Grottick AJ, Higgins GA, Martin JR, Jenck F, Moreau JL. Spatial and associative learning deficits induced by neonatal excitotoxic hippocampal damage in rats: further evaluation of an animal model of schizophrenia. Behav Pharmacol 2000; 11:257-68. [PMID: 11103880 DOI: 10.1097/00008877-200006000-00009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Neonatal ventral hippocampal lesions in the rat result in post-pubertal onset of behavioural abnormalities, modelling some aspects of schizophrenia. We further assessed the behavioural effects of neonatal lesions in rats in a variety of cognitive tasks and in the prepulse inhibition (PPI) of startle response paradigm. Prepubescent, lesioned rats exhibited startle responses and PPI similar to controls whereas, at adulthood, they showed a deficit in PPI. Lesioned rats acquired both passive and active avoidance responses. However, compared to controls, they showed a deficit in passive avoidance retention and in acquisition of active avoidance responses. In a cued Morris water-maze task, lesioned rats demonstrated adequate sensorimotor functions and appropriate motivation to escape from water. However, they were impaired in place learning and in remembering the location of a submerged platform. In conclusion, neonatal ventral hippocampal lesions result in the post-pubertal emergence of long-lasting deficits in sensorimotor gating and in the capacity to acquire and retain information in tests of spatial and avoidance learning. Therefore, this neurodevelopmental model of schizophrenia seems to exhibit an interesting degree of validity in possibly simulating some cognitive impairments and sensorimotor gating deficits frequently observed in psychotic patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Le Pen
- Pharma Division, Preclinical CNS Research, F-Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd, Basel, Switzerland.
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Gómez-Pinilla F, So V, Kesslak JP. Spatial learning and physical activity contribute to the induction of fibroblast growth factor: neural substrates for increased cognition associated with exercise. Neuroscience 1998; 85:53-61. [PMID: 9607702 DOI: 10.1016/s0306-4522(97)00576-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 194] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
New evidence indicates that neural activity regulates the expression of trophic factors in the brain but regulation of these molecules by select aspects of behaviour remains solely a fascinating possibility. We report that following training in the Morris water maze, a spatial memory task, the hippocampus and cerebellum of learning rats exhibited an increase in basic fibroblast growth factor messenger RNA. Basic fibroblast growth factor messenger RNA levels were higher during the learning of the task and decreased once asymptotic performance was reached, suggesting an involvement of basic fibroblast growth factor in learning/memory. An active control group, which exercised for the same time as the learning group but the spatial learning component of the task was minimized, exhibited a minor increase in basic fibroblast growth factor messenger RNA. The intensification of the physical activity component of the task by massed or intensive training resulted in greater increases in basic fibroblast growth factor messenger RNA for both learning and yoked groups, but levels of basic fibroblast growth factor messenger RNA in the learning group remained higher than yoked only in the cerebellum. Changes in basic fibroblast growth factor were accompanied by an increase in astrocyte density in the hippocampus in agreement with described roles of basic fibroblast growth factor in astrocyte proliferation/reactivity. Results suggest that learning potentiates the effects of physical activity on trophic factor induction in select brain regions. Trophic factor involvement in behaviour may provide a molecular basis for the enhanced cognitive function associated with active lifestyles, and guide development of strategies to improve rehabilitation and successful ageing.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Gómez-Pinilla
- Institute for Brain Aging and Dementia and Department of Neurology, University of California, Irvine 92697-4540, USA
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42
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Haapalinna A, Sirviö J, Lammintausta R. Facilitation of cognitive functions by a specific alpha2-adrenoceptor antagonist, atipamezole. Eur J Pharmacol 1998; 347:29-40. [PMID: 9650845 DOI: 10.1016/s0014-2999(98)00077-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
The present experiments investigated the effects of a specific and potent alpha2-adrenoceptor antagonist, atipamezole (as a stimulator of the noradrenergic system) on cognitive performance in rats. Atipamezole enhanced the acquisition of a linear-arm maze test and also improved the choice accuracy of poorly performing rats in a delayed (20 min) three-choice maze test. Furthermore, atipamezole improved the achievement of a one-trial appetite-maze when injected immediately after teaching, thus having an effect on consolidation. Atipamezole clearly impaired the acquisition of the active avoidance test. The present results indicate that stimulation of noradrenergic system by atipamezole improves the performance of animals in tasks assessing relational learning and memory, possibly affecting attention, short-term memory and the speed of information processing. It has also an effect on a consolidation process unrelated to attentional or motivational mechanisms. In a stressful test. stimulation of noradrenaline release leads to impairment of performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Haapalinna
- Orion, Orion Pharma, Preclinical R&D, Turku, Finland.
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43
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Abstract
OBJECTIVE Research on the relationship between physiological responses to stressful stimulation and the onset of psychosomatic illnesses has been an area of intense interest for many years. Studies using animal models have contributed significantly to this field of inquiry by taking several complementary approaches. METHOD Three specific research strategies taken in our laboratory will be highlighted here. Each involves studies in conscious, freely behaving animals. RESULTS Genetically selected animals have been exposed to acute stressors to unmask neuroendocrine and autonomic abnormalities related to disease susceptibility. In addition, studies of aged animals suggest that exaggerated physiological responses to acute stress may underlie some age-related pathologies. Finally, a series of studies has revealed that exposure of laboratory animals to stressful stimulation may exert long-lasting influences on the ways in which these subjects respond in the future to the same or novel stressors. CONCLUSIONS These findings illustrate how studies with laboratory animals have the potential for refining the questions that are posed in research with clinical populations and for providing insight into the underlying physiological mechanisms of individual variability in disease susceptibility and the development of appropriate therapeutic interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- R McCarty
- Department of Psychology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville 22903-2477, USA
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44
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Andrews JS. Possible confounding influence of strain, age and gender on cognitive performance in rats. BRAIN RESEARCH. COGNITIVE BRAIN RESEARCH 1996; 3:251-67. [PMID: 8806027 DOI: 10.1016/0926-6410(96)00011-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
There are substantial differences in the performance of various rat strains in tasks of learning, memory and attention. Strain, age and sex differences are not consistent over procedures: poor performance in one paradigm does not predict poor performance in a different paradigm. Some strain differences are not readily apparent until a direct comparison is made between one or more strains. Moreover, large differences in nominally the same strain but obtained from different suppliers have been observed in behavioural, pharmacological and physiological parameters and can have important consequences for interpretation of drug effects. Longevity, and the effects of ageing can differ dramatically from one strain to another; drug effects can alter radically with increasing age and show strain (and individual) differences in their action. Sex can further complicate interpretation of results. Thus, non-cognitive factors may exert a major effect on results in cognitive testing, and strain-dependent effects may account for many conflicting results in the literature concerning mnemonic performance. Strain differences in particular must be identified and used to help identify fundamental effects on memory, rather than continue to be ignored and allowed to obscure interpretation of drug effects on cognitive processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- J S Andrews
- Scientific Development Group, NV Organon, Oss, The Netherlands
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Gordon I, Genis I, Grauer E, Sehayek E, Michaelson DM. Biochemical and cognitive studies of apolipoprotein-E-deficient mice. MOLECULAR AND CHEMICAL NEUROPATHOLOGY 1996; 28:97-103. [PMID: 8871947 DOI: 10.1007/bf02815210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Apolipoprotein-E-deficient mice provide a useful model system for studying the role of apolipoprotein E (apoE) in brain function. In the present study, we characterized the cholinergic function of these mice and the extent of phosphorylation of their cytoskeletal protein tau. Morris water maze tasks revealed deficits in working memory that were accompanied by a specific decrease in hippocampal and cortical choline acetyltransferase activities. Immunoblot experiments utilizing native and dephosphorylated tau and antibodies directed against specific phosphorylated and unphosphorylated tau epitopes revealed that tau of the apoE-deficient mice is hyperphosphorylated. These results show that apoE-deficient mice have cognitive cholinergic and cytoskeletal derangements and point out the importance of this model for studying the role of apoE in neuronal function.
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Affiliation(s)
- I Gordon
- Department of Neurobiochemistry, George S. Wise Faculty of Life Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Ramat Aviv, Israel
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46
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Affiliation(s)
- T R Mabry
- Department of Psychology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville 22903-2477, USA
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