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Docampo R, Vercesi AE. Mitochondrial Ca 2+ and Reactive Oxygen Species in Trypanosomatids. Antioxid Redox Signal 2022; 36:969-983. [PMID: 34218689 PMCID: PMC9125514 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2021.0058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2021] [Revised: 05/31/2021] [Accepted: 06/22/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Significance: Millions of people are infected with trypanosomatids and new therapeutic approaches are needed. Trypanosomatids possess one mitochondrion per cell and its study has led to discoveries of general biological interest. These mitochondria, as in their animal counterparts, generate reactive oxygen species (ROS) and have evolved enzymatic and nonenzymatic defenses against them. Mitochondrial calcium ion (Ca2+) overload leads to generation of ROS and its study could lead to relevant information on the biology of trypanosomatids and to novel drug targets. Recent Advances: Mitochondrial Ca2+ is normally involved in maintaining the bioenergetics of trypanosomes, but when Ca2+ overload occurs, it is associated with cell death. Trypanosomes lack key players in the mechanism of cell death described in mammalian cells, although mitochondrial Ca2+ overload results in collapse of their membrane potential, production of ROS, and cytochrome c release. They are also very resistant to mitochondrial permeability transition, and cell death after mitochondrial Ca2+ overload depends on generation of ROS. Critical Issues: In this review, we consider the mechanisms of mitochondrial oxidant generation and removal and the involvement of Ca2+ in trypanosome cell death. Future Directions: More studies are required to determine the reactions involved in generation of ROS by the mitochondria of trypanosomatids, their enzymatic and nonenzymatic defenses against ROS, and the occurrence and composition of a mitochondrial permeability transition pore. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 36, 969-983.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberto Docampo
- Center for Tropical and Emerging Global Diseases, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA
- Department of Cellular Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA
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2
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Villalta F, Rachakonda G. Advances in preclinical approaches to Chagas disease drug discovery. Expert Opin Drug Discov 2019; 14:1161-1174. [PMID: 31411084 PMCID: PMC6779130 DOI: 10.1080/17460441.2019.1652593] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2019] [Accepted: 08/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Introduction: Chagas disease affects 8-10 million people worldwide, mainly in Latin America. The current therapy for Chagas disease is limited to nifurtimox and benznidazole, which are effective in treating only the acute phase of the disease but with severe side effects. Therefore, there is an unmet need for new drugs and for the exploration of innovative approaches which may lead to the discovery of new effective and safe drugs for its treatment. Areas covered: The authors report and discuss recent approaches including structure-based design that have led to the discovery of new promising small molecule candidates for Chagas disease which affect prime targets that intervene in the sterol pathway of T. cruzi. Other trypanosome targets, phenotypic screening, the use of artificial intelligence and the challenges with Chagas disease drug discovery are also discussed. Expert opinion: The application of recent scientific innovations to the field of Chagas disease have led to the discovery of new promising drug candidates for Chagas disease. Phenotypic screening brought new hits and opportunities for drug discovery. Artificial intelligence also has the potential to accelerate drug discovery in Chagas disease and further research into this is warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernando Villalta
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Physiology, School of Medicine, Meharry Medical College , Nashville , TN , USA
| | - Girish Rachakonda
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Physiology, School of Medicine, Meharry Medical College , Nashville , TN , USA
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3
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Rodrigues RF, Castro-Pinto D, Echevarria A, dos Reis CM, Del Cistia CN, Sant'Anna CMR, Teixeira F, Castro H, Canto-Cavalheiro M, Leon LL, Tomás A. Investigation of trypanothione reductase inhibitory activity by 1,3,4-thiadiazolium-2-aminide derivatives and molecular docking studies. Bioorg Med Chem 2012; 20:1760-6. [PMID: 22304847 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2012.01.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2011] [Revised: 12/28/2011] [Accepted: 01/05/2012] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The biological activities of a series of mesoionic 1,3,4-thiadiazolium-2-aminide derivatives have been studied. The most active compounds (MI-HH; MI-3-OCH(3); MI-4-OCH(3) and MI-4-NO(2)) were evaluated to determine their effect on trypanothione reductase (TryR) activity in Leishmania sp. and Trypanosoma cruzi. Among the assayed compounds, only MI-4-NO(2) showed enzyme inhibition effect on extracts from different cultures of parasites, which was confirmed using the recombinant enzyme from T. cruzi (TcTryR) and Leishmania infantum (LiTryR). The enzyme kinetics determined with LiTryR demonstrated a non-competitive inhibition profile of MI-4-NO(2). A molecular docking study showed that the mesoionic compounds could effectively dock into the substrate binding site together with the substrate molecule. The mesoionic compounds were also effective ligands of the NADPH and FAD binding sites and the NADPH binding site was predicted as the best of all three binding sites. Based on the theoretical results, an explanation at the molecular level is proposed for the MI-4-NO(2) enzyme inhibition effect. Given TryR as a molecular target, it is important to continue the study of mesoionic compounds as part of a drug discovery campaign against Leishmaniasis or Chagas' disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raquel F Rodrigues
- Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Laboratório de Bioquímica de Tripanosomatídeos, Avenida Brasil 4365, Manguinhos, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil.
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4
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Richardson JL, Nett IRE, Jones DC, Abdille MH, Gilbert IH, Fairlamb AH. Improved tricyclic inhibitors of trypanothione reductase by screening and chemical synthesis. ChemMedChem 2009; 4:1333-40. [PMID: 19557801 PMCID: PMC2929371 DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.200900097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/04/2022]
Abstract
Trypanothione reductase (TryR) is a key validated enzyme in the trypanothione-based redox metabolism of pathogenic trypanosomes and leishmania parasites. This system is absent in humans, being replaced with glutathione and glutathione reductase, and as such offers a target for selective inhibition. As part of a program to discover antiparasitic drugs, the LOPAC1280 library of 1266 compounds was screened against TryR and the top hits evaluated against glutathione reductase and T. brucei parasites. The top hits included a number of known tricyclic neuroleptic drugs along with other new scaffolds for TryR. Three novel druglike hits were identified and SAR studies on one of these using information from the tricyclic neuroleptic agents led to the discovery of a competitive inhibitor (Ki=330 nm) with an improved potency against T. brucei (EC50=775 nm).
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Affiliation(s)
- John L Richardson
- Division of Biological Chemistry & Drug Discovery, College of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee DD1 5EH, Scotland, UK
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5
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Castro-Pinto DB, Lima ELS, Cunha AS, Genestra M, De Léo RM, Monteiro F, Leon LL. Leishmania amazonensis trypanothione reductase: Evaluation of the effect of glutathione analogs on parasite growth, infectivity and enzyme activity. J Enzyme Inhib Med Chem 2008; 22:71-5. [PMID: 17373550 DOI: 10.1080/14756360600920180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Trypanothione reductase (TR) is a major enzyme in trypanosomatids. Its substrate, trypanothione is a molecule containing a tripeptide (L-glutamic acid-cysteine-glycine) coupled to a polyamine, spermidine. This redox system (TR/Trypanothione) is vital for parasite survival within the host cell and has been described as a good target for chemotherapy anti-Leishmania. The use of tripeptides analogs of glutathione would result in a decrease in trypanothione synthesis and as a consequence in TR activity. In this work, besides the enzyme potential inhibition, it also evaluated the influence of those analogs on parasite growth and on its infective capacity. The results showed a significant effect on parasite growth and infectivity and in addition TR activity was highly inhibited. These results are very promising, suggesting a potential use of those analogs as therapeutic drugs against experimental diseases caused by trypanosomatids.
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Castro-Pinto DB, Echevarria A, Genestra MS, Cysne-Finkelstein L, Leon LL. Trypanothione Reductase Activity is Prominent in Metacyclic Promastigotes and Axenic Amastigotes of Leishmania amazonesis. Evaluation of its Potential as a Therapeutic Target. J Enzyme Inhib Med Chem 2008; 19:57-63. [PMID: 15202494 DOI: 10.1080/14756360310001624966] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The activity of trypanothione reductase in Leishmania amazonensis was evaluated and it was demonstrated that TR is expressed in the soluble fractions of infective promastigotes and amastigotes, while non-infective promastigotes expressed the enzyme at basal levels. This data allows an association of enzyme activity and the infective capacity of the parasite. We have also previously demonstrated that amidine compounds (N, N'-diphenyl-4-methoxy-benzamidine and pentamidine) were active against this parasite. Here, experiments concerning the effect of these compounds on TR activity, showed that both compounds significantly inhibited the enzyme. However, against glutathione reductase, only pentamidine showed a significant inhibitory action, suggesting an association with the toxic effects of this drug used in the clinic for the treatment of leishmaniasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Denise B Castro-Pinto
- Department of Immunology, Oswaldo Cruz Institute, FIOCRUZ, Av. Brasil, 4365-Manguinhos CEP 21042-900, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
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7
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Erat M, Ciftçi M. In VitroEffects of Some Antibiotics on Glutathione Reductase from Sheep Liver. J Enzyme Inhib Med Chem 2008; 18:545-50. [PMID: 15008519 DOI: 10.1080/14756360310001624957] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
The effects of gentamicin sulphate, thiamphenicol, ofloxacin, levofloxacin, cefepime, and cefazolin were investigated on the in vitro enzyme activity of glutathione reductase. The enzyme was purified 1,850-fold with a yield 18.76% from sheep liver using ammonium sulphate precipitation, 2',5'-ADP Sepharose 4B affinity chromatography, and Sephadex G-200 gel filtration chromatography. The purified enzyme showed a single band on sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrilamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE). The enzyme activity was measured spectrophotometrically at 340 nm, according to the method of Carlberg and Mannervik. From these six antibiotics, Ofloxacin, levofloxacin, cefepime, and cefazolin inhibited the activity of the purified enzyme; gentamicin sulphate and thiamphenicol showed little effect on the enzyme activity. The I50 values for these four antibiotics were 0.150 mM, 0.154 mM, 3.395 mM, and 18.629 mM, respectively. The Ki constants were 0.047 +/- 0.034 mM, 0.066 +/- 0.038 mM, 4.885 +/- 3.624 mM, and 6.511 +/- 1.894 mM, respectively and they were competitive inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mustafa Erat
- Atatürk University, Biotechnology Application and Research Center, Erzurum, Turkey.
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Jorqueira A, Gouvêa RM, Ferreira VF, da Silva MN, de Souza MCBV, Zuma AA, Cavalcanti DFB, Araújo HP, Santos DO, Bourguignon SC. Oxyrane derivative of α-lapachone is potent growth inhibitor of Trypanosoma cruzi epimastigote forms. Parasitol Res 2006; 99:429-33. [PMID: 16596415 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-006-0153-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2005] [Accepted: 02/06/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
The investigation of trypanocidal effects against Trypanosoma cruzi and cytotoxicity in VERO cell line of several oxyranes structurally related to beta-lapachone, nor-beta-lapachone, alpha-lapachone, and 4-methoxy-1,2-naphthoquinone is described. It was found that the oxyranes 10 derived from alpha-lapachone showed an approximately the same trypanocidal activity of beta-lapachone. In addition, all the oxyranes showed less cytotoxicity than the corresponding naphthoquinones.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandra Jorqueira
- Departamento de Química Orgânica-PQO, Instituto de Química, Universidade Federal Fluminense, 24020-150, Niterói, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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9
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D'Silva C, Daunes S. The therapeutic potential of inhibitors of the trypanothione cycle. Expert Opin Investig Drugs 2002; 11:217-31. [PMID: 11829713 DOI: 10.1517/13543784.11.2.217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
There is an urgent need for new drugs in the treatment of human African trypanosomiasis, Chagas' disease and leishmaniasis. This article provides an overview of current drugs, formulations and their deficiencies. Targets for the design of new drugs and the rational provided for targeting enzymes of the trypanothione cycle are described. Biochemical aspects of the cycle and the currently investigated target trypanothione reductase are discussed as are the several classes of inhibitors and their in vitro potencies. Evidence is provided for considering the tryparedoxins as a new target for antiprotozoal chemotherapy and a summary of glutathione-based inhibitors with significant in vitro activity is reported.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudius D'Silva
- Department of Chemistry & Materials, The Manchester Metropolitan University, John Dalton Building, Chester Street, Manchester M1 5GD, UK
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10
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Li Z, Fennie MW, Ganem B, Hancock MT, Kobaslija M, Rattendi D, Bacchi CJ, O'Sullivan MC. Polyamines with N-(3-phenylpropyl) substituents are effective competitive inhibitors of trypanothione reductase and trypanocidal agents. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2001; 11:251-4. [PMID: 11206471 DOI: 10.1016/s0960-894x(00)00643-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Several N-(3-phenylpropyl)-substituted spermidine and spermine derivatives were prepared and found to be potent competitive inhibitors of Trypanosoma cruzi trypanothione reductase (seven compounds with Ki values < 5 microM are described). The most effective inhibitor studied was compound 12 with a Ki value of 0.151 microM. Six of the compounds described are also effective trypanocides with IC50 values < 1 microM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Z Li
- Department of Chemistry, Indiana State University, Terre Haute 47809, USA
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11
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Krauth-Siegel RL, Coombs GH. Enzymes of parasite thiol metabolism as drug targets. PARASITOLOGY TODAY (PERSONAL ED.) 1999; 15:404-9. [PMID: 10481152 DOI: 10.1016/s0169-4758(99)01516-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
The potential for chemotherapeutic exploitation of thiol metabolism in parasitic protozoa is reviewed here by Luise Krauth-Siegel and Graham Coombs. The review is based largely on discussions held at a meeting of the COST B9 Action entitled 'Chemotherapy of Protozoal Infections'*. The major questions posed were: which enzymes are the best to target; what further information is required to allow their use for rational drug development; and how can this be achieved most efficiently? Not surprisingly, only partial answers could be obtained in many cases, but the interactive discussion between the multidisciplinary group of participants provided thought-provoking ideas and will help direct future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- R L Krauth-Siegel
- Biochemie-Zentrum Heidelberg, Ruprecht-Karls-Universität, D-69120 Heidelberg, Germany.
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12
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O'Sullivan MC, Zhou Q, Li Z, Durham TB, Rattendi D, Lane S, Bacchi CJ. Polyamine derivatives as inhibitors of trypanothione reductase and assessment of their trypanocidal activities. Bioorg Med Chem 1997; 5:2145-55. [PMID: 9459012 DOI: 10.1016/s0968-0896(97)00157-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Trypanothione reductase (TR) occurs exclusively in trypanosomes and leishmania, which are the etiological agents of many diseases. TR plays a vital role in the antioxidant defenses of these parasites and inhibitors of TR have potential as antitrypanosomal agents. We describe the syntheses of several spermine and spermidine derivatives and the inhibiting effects of these compounds on T. cruzi TR. All of the inhibiting compounds displayed competitive inhibition of TR-mediated reduction of trypanothione disulfide. The three most effective compounds studied were N4,N8-bis(3-phenylpropyl)spermine (12), N4,N8-bis(2-naphthylmethyl)spermine (14), and N1,N8-bis(2-naphthylmethyl)spermidine (21), with Ki values of 3.5, 5.5 and 9.5 microM, respectively. Compounds 12, 14, and 21 were found to be potent trypanocides in vitro with IC50 values ranging from 0.19 to 0.83 microM against four T. brucei ssp. strains. However, these compounds did not prolong the lives of mice infected with trypanosomes. This work indicates that certain polyamine derivatives which target a unique pathway in Trypanosomatidae have potential as antitrypanosomal agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- M C O'Sullivan
- Department of Chemistry, Indiana State University, Terre Haute 47809, USA.
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13
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Trypanocidal activity and redox potential of heterocyclic- and 2-hydroxy-naphthoquinones. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 1997. [DOI: 10.1016/s0960-894x(97)00354-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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14
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Effects of Nifurtimox and benznidazole upon glutathione and trypanothione content in epimastigote, trypomastigote and amastigote forms of Trypanosoma cruzi. Mol Biochem Parasitol 1997. [DOI: 10.1016/s0166-6851(96)02837-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Hoffmann ME, Jang J, Moreno SN, Docampo R. Inhibition of protein synthesis and amino acid transport by crystal violet in Trypanosoma cruzi. J Eukaryot Microbiol 1995; 42:293-7. [PMID: 7496387 DOI: 10.1111/j.1550-7408.1995.tb01583.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
[35S]methionine incorporation into proteins of either T. cruzi epimastigotes or trypomastigotes was drastically inhibited by low concentrations of crystal violet in a dose-dependent manner. This inhibition was not due to ATP depletion since cellular ATP levels did not change significantly after incubation of epimastigotes with 50 microM crystal violet for similar periods of time, and was unaffected by changes in the extracellular free calcium concentration. Although crystal violet was able to inhibit protein synthesis in a cell-free system from T. cruzi epimastigotes, half maximal inhibition was at 1 mM, a concentration three orders of magnitude higher than those that inhibited protein synthesis in intact cells. On the other hand, crystal violet was able to inhibit total [35S]methionine uptake at similar concentrations to those that inhibited protein synthesis while addition of increasing concentrations of cold methionine to the incubation medium protected the cells against crystal violet inhibition. Crystal violet also inhibited total [3H]proline uptake thus indicating that it has a general inhibitory effect upon the transport of amino acids, and not specifically upon methionine. These results indicate that inhibition of protein synthesis by crystal violet is probably due to inhibition of amino acid uptake.
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Affiliation(s)
- M E Hoffmann
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign 61801, USA
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