Assessment of individual differences in behavioural reactions of heifers exposed to various fear-eliciting situations

Effects of dairy cows' personality traits on their adaptation to an automated milking system following parturition

The objectives of this study were to determine how dairy cow personality traits affect their adaptation to an automated milking system (AMS) upon parturition, as well as whether these personality traits are consistent across the transition from gestation to lactation. Sixty Holstein dairy cows (19 primiparous and 41 multiparous) were assessed for personality traits using a combined arena test conducted at 24 d before parturition and 24 d after first introduction to an AMS, which occurred ∼3 d after parturition. The combined arena test comprised 3 parts: a novel arena test, a novel object test, and a novel human test. Principal component analysis of the behaviors recorded during the personality assessment revealed 3 factors interpreted as personality traits (75% cumulative variance) in the pre-calving test, interpreted as explore, active, and bold. The post-calving test revealed 2 factors (78% cumulative variance), interpreted as active and explore. Data from d 1 to 7 after introduction to the AMS were summarized by cow and associated with the pre-calving factors, and data from d 21 to 27 after introduction to the AMS were summarized by cow and associated with the post-calving factors. The active trait had a moderate positive correlation between the pre- and post-calving tests, whereas exploration had a weak positive correlation between tests. Cows that scored high for activeness in the pre-calving test tended to have fewer fetching events and a higher coefficient of variation of milk yield in the first 7 d after introduction to the AMS, whereas bolder cows tended to have higher milk yield during that period. In the post-calving test, more active cows tended to have more frequent milkings and voluntary visits per day, as well as a lower cumulative milk yield from d 21 to 27 after introduction to the AMS. Overall, these results indicate that personality traits of dairy cows are associated with adaptation and performance in an AMS, and that personality traits are consistent across the transition period. Specifically, cows that scored high for boldness and activeness adapted better to the AMS immediately after calving, whereas cows that scored low for activeness and high for boldness performed better in terms of milk yield and milking activity in early lactation. This study demonstrates that personality traits affect milking activity and milk yield of dairy cows milked with an AMS and, therefore, may be useful for selection of cows who might best adapt to and use an AMS.

Development and Utilization of an Isolation Box Test to Characterize Personality Traits of Dairy Calves

The use of an isolation box test (IBT) to characterize personality traits has been used in non-bovine species with success. We aimed to develop an IBT for dairy calves and determine if the behavioral responses to an IBT were associated with personality traits found from traditional tests (novel person, novel object, and a startle tests) and average daily gain (ADG; Kg/d) through weaning. Calf movement while in the IBT was measured via accelerometers attached to 5 locations on the exterior of the box. A total movement index (TMI) was calculated based on accelerometer readings during the IBT. We performed a principal component analysis on the traditional tests and identified 3 influential factors that we labeled as “fearful,” “bold,” and “active.” Calves were weighed biweekly to track liveweight ADG. Factor scores and ADG were regressed against TMI. A significant negative association was found between the TMI and the factor “active,” indicating the validity of IBT as a tool for assessing some personality traits of dairy calves. Furthermore, TMI had a positive association with ADG through the entire experimental period and thus has potential to help predict performance through weaning. IBT has potential to be used as a personality test in research scenarios. Further development is needed to produce an IBT that would be appropriate to measure animals' responses reliably in production settings. An automated test that can accommodate a wide range of ages and developing a computer learning model to interpret output from the IBT would be a possible option to do so.

Housing and personality effects on judgement and attention biases in dairy cows

Affective states can be inferred from responses to ambiguous and threatening stimuli, using Judgement Bias Tasks (JBTs) and Attention Bias Tasks (ABTs). We investigated the separate and interactive effects of personality and housing conditions on dairy cattle affective states. We assessed personality in 48 heifers using Open-Field, Novel-Object and Runway tests. Personality effects on responses to the JBT and to the ABT were examined when heifers were housed under reference conditions. Heifers were subsequently housed under positive or negative conditions, and housing effects on animal responses in both tasks were investigated while controlling for personality. A Principal Component Analysis revealed three personality traits labelled Activity, Fearfulness and Sociability. Under reference conditions, personality influenced heifers' responses to the JBT and to the ABT, therefore questioning the tasks' generalizability across individuals. Against expectations, housing did not influence responses to the  JBT and heifers in the negative conditions looked at the threat later than heifers in the positive or reference conditions. More research is warranted to confirm the validity and the repeatability of the JBT and of the ABT as appropriate measures of affective states in dairy cows.

Effects of adding a commercial capsaicin fertilizer on the feeding behavior of sika deer (Cervus nippon)

We investigated the inhibitory effect of capsaicin fertilizer on feeding in deer. We tested four captive adult female deer. In Experiment 1, in addition to the treatment (intact) containing only a solid feed (HC), we mixed the fertilizer not containing capsaicin (F) or the capsaicin fertilizer (CF) in the solid feed. In addition, the solid feed was put on a wire net that capsaicin fertilizer was placed 5 cm below (SCF). We investigated their feeding behavior response. In Experiment 2, we changed the amount of substance (fertilizer and capsaicin fertilizer) mixed in the HC. We mixed different amounts (0, 50, 100, and 200 g) of the treatments other than the intact with HC and presented them to the deer, and investigated their feeding behavior response. In Experiment 1, intake in the F and CF decreased (p < .05). In Experiment 2, HC intake was significantly lower in the 100 and 200 g CF (p < .05). However, HC intake relatively increased by the last day in the CF 200 g too. The capsaicin fertilizer decreased the feeding behavior of deer by directly touching the mucous membranes of the deer nose and lips. However, the effects were decreased over time.

Maternal deprivation affects goat kids' stress coping behaviour

Maternal deprivation early in life has been shown to disrupt neonates' development. Nevertheless, separating the young animals from their dams soon after birth remains a common practice in dairy farm husbandry. This study investigated the effects of different rearing conditions on goat kids' stress coping abilities. Twenty female kids were raised together with their dams ('dam-reared') in a herd composed of other lactating goats and kids, while twenty female kids were separated from their dams three days after birth and reared together with same-age peers ('artificially-reared') and visually separated from the lactating herd. All kids shared the same father and two thirds of the kids were twins allocated to each treatment. At one month of age, kids were individually submitted to a series of tests: a novel arena test, a novel goat test, and a novel object test. These tests happened consecutively in this order, and lasted 180 s each. The kids' behaviour was video-recorded and analysed post-hoc by an observer blind to treatments. Five weeks after weaning, the kids were also subjected to human-animal relationship tests. During the three behavioural tests, artificially-reared kids vocalized more (P < 0.001), reared more (P < 0.001), ran more (P = 0.002) and jumped more (P < 0.001) than dam-reared kids, but self-groomed less (P = 0.01) and urinated less (P = 0.05) than dam-reared kids. During the novel goat test and the novel object test, artificially-reared kids gazed less at the novel goat and the novel object (P = 0.02) and initiated contact more quickly (P = 0.05) with the novel goat and the novel object than dam-reared kids. The treatments however did not differ significantly in salivary cortisol response to the tests (P = 0.96). Artificially-reared kids showed significantly less avoidance of humans than dam-reared kids during the human-animal relationship tests after weaning (P < 0.001). The higher intensity of their behavioural reaction showed that artificially-reared kids react to stressful situations more actively than dam-reared kids. The difference between the three tests were only minor, suggesting a general change in the kids' response to stressful situations rather than a specific change in their social response tested with an unfamiliar adult. Hence, artificial rearing affects goat kids' behavioural response to challenges, probably maternal deprivation being the main factor.

Researching Human-Cattle Interaction on Rangelands: Challenges and Potential Solutions

Simple Summary

Research investigating the influence of human-animal interactions on beef cattle production and welfare often occurs during stress-inducing contexts, such as restraint and transport. Given that beef cattle which graze on expansive rangelands do not frequently interact with humans, assessment of animal response to humans may be inaccurate if they are only recorded during such stressful context. Future research aimed at identifying the causes and impacts of individual human–cattle relationships may consider conducting experiments while the cattle are in a low stress context, such as while ruminating, resting, or, grazing. By adapting methods used to research wildlife response to humans, researchers may be able to better understand how animal personality and previous experience can influence cattle production and welfare.

Abstract

Human-animal interaction (HAI) research spans across many scientific fields and animal taxa. For livestock species, HAI research tends to focus on animals that are managed in close proximity with humans such as poultry, dairy cattle, and swine. Given the nature of rangeland cattle production, HAI research with beef cattle often occurs in and around the processing environment. This high arousal context may skew behavioral and physiological responses by the animals due to the potentially negative interaction. The aim of this review is to describe cattle production on rangelands, examine the considerations and limitations of current HAI research used to evaluate interaction quality or traits of rangeland cattle, identify contexts in which rangeland cattle interact with humans, and provide recommendations for improving future HAI research with rangeland cattle. Current research delineating individual differences in response to humans by beef cattle occur during routine husbandry and management on rangelands (pragmatic) and in a research context (experimental). Human-cattle interactions can be distinguished based on the quality and goal of the interaction into four broad categories: human presence, human approach, human contact, and restraint. Limitations of HAI research with rangeland cattle are identified and reconciled by recommendations for HAI research that can take place outside of the processing environment (i.e., while cattle are ruminating, resting or grazing on rangelands).

The Effect of Mother Goat Presence during Rearing on Kids' Response to Isolation and to an Arena Test

The aim of the study was to examine how early permanent separation, separation during the day only, or full-time access to the mother goat affected goat kids during social isolation with a sudden sound of a dog bark at two weeks and two months, and a novel arena test with a novel object at two months. Kids permanently separated reduced their vocalization earlier and had a higher heart rate before and after dog bark during isolation at two weeks, no effect was found on the daytime separated kids. Daytime separated kids bleated more at two weeks and decreased heart rate after dog barking at two months. Daytime separated kids showed the strongest fear reaction in the arena test, no effect was found on the permanently separated kids. Kids separated early vocalized more before novel object and showed more explorative behavior afterwards. Our study shows different responses in goat kids separated early permanent, daytime separated, or kept full-time with mother, which demonstrates the importance of if and how the mother is present, and the impact of using a wide variety of physiological and behavioral measures when evaluating stress in animal welfare research.

A Multi-Disciplinary Approach to Assess the Welfare Impacts of a New Virtual Fencing Technology

Virtual fencing involving the application of audio cues and electrical stimuli is being commercially developed for cattle. Virtual fencing has the potential to improve productivity through optimized pasture management and utilization by grazing animals. The application of virtual fencing initiates public concern for the potential welfare impacts on animals due the aversive nature of using an electrical stimulus. It is therefore important to provide welfare assurance of the impacts of virtual fencing on livestock. In this paper, we provide an overview of the welfare assessment and validation stages for virtual fencing which could be applied to other new technologies utilizing novel systems. An understanding of stress measures and their suitability for use in specific contexts is discussed, including the use of glucocorticoids to measure both acute and chronic stress, and behavioral responses and patterns to indicate welfare states. The importance of individual differences in relation to learning and cognition are also highlighted. Together, this multi-disciplinary approach to welfare assessment provides a tool kit that may be applied for welfare assurance of some new technologies and systems for farm animals.

Exploratory behaviour towards novel objects is associated with enhanced learning in young horses

The mechanisms underlying individual variation in learning are key to understanding the development of cognitive abilities. In humans and primates, curiosity has been suggested as an important intrinsic factor that enhances learning, whereas in domesticated species research has primarily identified factors with a negative effect on cognitive abilities, such as stress and fearfulness. This study presents the first evidence of a link between object-directed curiosity and learning performance in young horses in two very different learning tasks (visual discrimination and pressure-release). We exposed young horses (n = 44) to standardised novel object tests at 5 months and 1 year of age and found consistency in responses. Standard indicators of fearfulness (e.g. heart rate and alertness) were unrelated to learning performance, whereas exploratory behaviour towards the novel objects correlated to performance in both learning tasks. Exploratory behaviour was unreinforced in the novel object tests and likely reflects the animal’s intrinsic motivation (i.e. curiosity), suggesting that this trait is favourable for learning performance. In addition to the insights that these results provide into cognition in a domesticated species, they also raise questions in relation to fostering of curiosity in animals and the impact that such manipulation may have on cognitive abilities.

Providing an Outdoor Exercise Area Affects Tie-Stall Cow Reactivity and Human-Cow Relations

Confinement and restriction of movement are a reality for most dairy cows. Providing outdoor access is one method to increase movement opportunities. However, leading cows to an outdoor exercise area increases their exposure to manipulations different from those of an indoor housing system. These situations have the potential to induce fear reactions, which can lead to injuries for the cow and danger or economic losses for the farmer. Our aim was to evaluate the development of the human-cow relationship and general reactivity of cows after a 12-week period of outdoor access provision in winter, summer and fall. A total of 16 cows in the winter, 16 in the summer, and 15 in the fall were enrolled in the study and either allocated to the treatment (Out) or stayed in the tiestall (NonOut). A human reactivity test and suddenness test were performed before and after the 12-week treatment period. In winter and to a lesser extent in fall, Out cows had a better human reaction score compared to NonOut cows, suggesting that cows with outdoor access during the winter associated human approaches with positive events. Conversely, no difference in the human reaction score was found between treatments during the summer. For summer and fall, Out cows did, however, show a decrease in their reaction score to the suddenness test compared to NonOut cows. The results of the human reactivity test in the summer suggested that cows with outdoor access did not associate the manipulation with a positive event. Interestingly, this result is not due to the cows being more frightened, since the suddenness test suggested that the Out cows were less fearful than NonOut cows. The way in which cows were led to the outdoor area could explain the differences in cow responses. Here, summer cows faced greater movement restrictions during trips to the outdoor area than in the winter, which may have been negatively perceived by the cows. We conclude that, besides the provision of outdoor access, the manner in which cows are handled during these events may have significant impacts on their reactions and could facilitate future handling.

Assessment of the Welfare of Extensively Managed Autochtonous Sheep Breed Vlasicka Zackel using Animal-Based Measurements

In the Balkan region, the state of sheep welfare is little known. In this context, the assessment of sheep welfare is important for the identification of health and behavioral problems that affect these animals, along with the deficiencies present in the environment. The study was conducted during the winter season on a farm of 220 autochthonous breed Vlašićka Zackel sheep reared in extensive systems on the mountain regions of Bosnia and Herzegovina. A total of 65 ewes, aged 2–4 years, were observed. The welfare assessment was performed according to the AWIN protocol for sheep. The authors found the following issues: dry ewes were significantly fat (p<0.001) in regard to pregnant and lactation ewes; 42.11% of pregnant ewes were thin while 31.25% of dry ewes were fat; most of the assessed animals (78.46%) had dry or damp, slightly soiled fleece; 32.31% of animals had lesions on face/muzzle while ocular discharge, respiratory problems, mild mastitis and minor lameness were present in 16.92%, 4.62%, 15.38% and 7.69% sheep, respectively. All animals showed a negative relationship with humans. Using this methodology, the welfare problems in animals may be detected, and thus certain segments in the production cycle may be improved. The on-farm welfare assessment is highly recommended for emphasizing the key points in improving sheep welfare in Balkan countries.

Evidence for Individual Differences in Behaviour and for Behavioural Syndromes in Adult Shelter Cats

Simple Summary

An important activity of modern animal shelters is the development of successful adoption programmes. In this regard, there is a need for reliable tests of individual differences in behaviour to help match the “personality” of potential adoptees with the lifestyle and needs of prospective owners; a companion animal for an elderly person remaining at home requires a different match than a pet for someone who will be away most of the day; a pet kept exclusively indoors in a small apartment requires a different match than an indoor/outdoor pet. In the present study, we repeatedly tested 31 mixed-breed adult cats of both sexes and a wide range of ages in five behavioural tests at a shelter in Mexico City, Mexico. The tests were designed to be easily implemented by shelter staff, and were short and low cost and intended to simulate common situations in a pet cat’s everyday life. We found consistent (stable) individual differences in the cats’ behaviour on all five tests, as well as correlations between their behaviour across tests. This suggests that such tests may contribute to reliably characterizing the “personality” of individual cats and so help increase the rate of successful adoptions.

Abstract

Consistent inter-individual differences in behaviour have been previously reported in adult shelter cats. In this study, we aimed to assess whether repeatable individual differences in behaviours exhibited by shelter cats in different situations were interrelated, forming behavioural syndromes. We tested 31 adult cats in five different behavioural tests, repeated three times each: a struggle test where an experimenter restrained the cat, a separation/confinement test where the cat spent 2 min in a pet carrier, a mouse test where the cat was presented with a live mouse in a jar, and two tests where the cat reacted to an unfamiliar human who remained either passive or actively approached the cat. Individual differences in behaviour were consistent (repeatable) across repeated trials for each of the tests. We also found associations between some of the behaviours shown in the different tests, several of which appeared to be due to differences in human-oriented behaviours. This study is the first to assess the presence of behavioural syndromes using repeated behavioural tests in different situations common in the daily life of a cat, and which may prove useful in improving the match between prospective owner and cat in shelter adoption programmes.

Impact of Maternal High Stocking Density during the Dry Period on Dairy Calf Health, Behaviour, and Welfare

Simple Summary

Negative impacts of stressful maternal experience during pregnancy on offspring health and behaviour have been reported in various mammalian species including humans, laboratory animals, and farm animals. This study investigated the effect of limited space allowance for dairy cows during late gestation on the growth and behaviour of their offspring during the pre-weaning period. Our results indicated associations between maternal high stocking density and a higher frequency of social behaviours and increased behavioural reactivity to weaning in offspring. Maternal high stocking density also reduced behavioural reactions of healthy offspring to a painful procedure. However, there was no association between maternal high stocking density and offspring growth or behaviour in the first week of life. To our knowledge, this study is the first to attempt to demonstrate associations between maternal stocking density during late pregnancy and offspring behaviour in dairy cattle.

Abstract

This study aimed to investigate the effect of maternal stocking density during late pregnancy (approximately 60 ± 4 days before calving) on offspring performance during the pre-weaning period. Forty-five dairy calves were born to cows that went through either industry minimum standards (H: n = 24, high stocking density) or more extensive space allowances (L: n = 21, low stocking density) during the dry period. Body weight and average daily gain during the pre-weaning period (day 1–49) were measured. Observations were made of: (i) activity levels (day 2–6); ii) the level of training required to use an automatic feeder, and behavioural reactions to the group environment (d7); (iii) feeding and social behaviour in the group pen (day 7–21); and (iv) responses to weaning (day 40–49) and disbudding (day 28+). Compared to L calves, H calves made more frequent social contacts with pen mates in the group pen (p = 0.003) and decreased their lying time around weaning (p = 0.045). Among the healthy calves, L calves displayed more severe behavioural reactions to the disbudding procedure (p < 0.001), a significant increase in salivary cortisol concentrations (p = 0.013), and more frequent pain-related behaviour (p = 0.036). This study indicated associations between maternal stocking density during late pregnancy and some welfare-relevant offspring outcomes during the pre-weaning period; these effects were found to be modulated by offspring health status.

Pre-Exposure to an Electrical Stimulus Primes Associative Pairing of Audio and Electrical Stimuli for Dairy Heifers in a Virtual Fencing Feed Attractant Trial

Simple Summary

Virtual fencing may soon provide an alternative to electric fencing in livestock production systems. In virtual fencing systems, a collar is worn by each animal and emits an audio cue when the animal approaches a virtual boundary that has been set via a Global Positioning System (GPS). An electrical stimulus is delivered by the collar if the animal continues to walk forward, but not if they stop or turn. Over time, the animal increasingly responds to the audio cue alone. A better understanding of factors that influence learning of the association between audio and electrical stimuli may ensure all animals adapt in systems that utilise virtual fencing. Dairy heifers were reared with or without exposure to electric fencing. Heifers with experience of electric fencing showed more rapid learning of the association between audio and electrical stimuli. There were differences between heifers in the speed of associative learning, perhaps due to individual differences in the significance of the audio cue, the aversive nature of the electrical stimulus, or the animal’s motivation to feed. Ethically acceptable virtual fencing requires that all animals learn quickly how to interact with the technology. The technology and training protocols may require continual refinement to account for individual differences in learning.

Abstract

This experiment examined whether pre-exposure to an electrical stimulus from electric fencing attenuates associative pairing of audio and electrical stimuli in dairy heifers. Two treatments were applied to 30 weaned heifers naive to electric fencing. Heifers in the ‘electric-fence’ treatment were exposed to an electrified perimeter fence and two periods of strip-grazing using electrified poly-wire. Control heifers remained naïve to electric fencing. The pairing of audio and electrical stimuli was assessed in a feed attractant trial using manually controlled training collars. Heifers received an audio stimulus (2 s; 84 dB) when they breached a virtual fence after which a short electrical stimulus (0.5 s; 120 mW) was administered if they continued to move forward. If the animal stopped moving forward no further stimuli were applied. By the third training session, electric-fence heifers received a lower proportion of electrical stimuli than control heifers (p = 0.03). The more exploratory interactions a heifer had with the electric fence, the lower the proportion of electrical stimuli she received during training (r^s = −0.77, p = 0.002). We conclude that experience with electrical fencing enhanced the salience of the electrical stimulus delivered by manual collars used for virtual fence training.

Individual differences in behavior and heart rate variability across the preweaning period in the domestic horse in response to an ecologically relevant stressor

The study of individual differences in behavior and physiology has attracted considerable interest among behavioral biologists. Important questions include how early in life such differences emerge and to what extent they remain stable across development. Due to the demanding nature of longitudinal studies, there is still a lack of information on this in mammals, especially in large, long-lived species. Our aim in this study was to look for stable individual differences in behavior and physiology during early development in the domestic horse and for correlations between the two parameters. We tested 30 Azteca-breed foals kept under standard conditions by briefly separating them from their mother in four repeated tests beginning at the first postnatal week until the foals were six months old, before they were weaned. Individual differences in behavior and heart rate variability of foals in response to brief maternal separations were consistent and were correlated from a very early age. These findings contribute to an understanding of the expression of individual differences in physiology and behavior from a developmental perspective and may help in the future selection of horses for functional contexts that require different levels of reactivity, thereby contributing to horse welfare and to human safety and economy.

Avoidance Distance in Sheltered Cows and Its Association with Other Welfare Parameters

The human-animal relationship is an important welfare parameter in animal welfare assessment in cows, and the avoidance distance of cows to a stranger at the feed bunk is measured to assess this relationship. The assessment of the human-animal relationship in cow shelters in India, where old, unproductive, and abandoned cows are sheltered, is important to explore the welfare of cows in these shelters. The cows observed were of indigenous Indian breeds and breeds which were crosses between indigenous breeds and pure bred exotic cows. The human-animal contact in this context is of particular interest for welfare assessment as traditional Indian farming and sheltering systems involves regular close human-animal contact. In a cross-sectional study across 6 states, 54 cow shelters were visited and 30 cows in each shelter were randomly selected (1620 in total) for the assessment of avoidance distance and other cow-based (27 parameters) and resource-based (15 parameters) welfare parameters. Avoidance distance was assessed 1 h after morning feeding. Cows standing at the feeding manger were approached from the front at a rate of one step/s, starting 2 m away from the manger. The distance between the assessor's hand and the cow's head was estimated at the moment the cow moved away and turned its head, using a four-point scale (0, touched; 1, 0-50 cm; 2, 51-100 cm; and 3, >100 cm). The majority, 52%, of the cows allowed touch by the assessor and another 32% allowed approach within 50 cm, demonstrating tolerance, or even solicitation of close human-animal relationships by the cows. Avoidance distance increased with the proportion of cows with dirty hind limbs, tarsal joint swellings, and hair loss, and the extent of rumen fill. There was also evidence of reduced avoidance distances in cows with high levels of body condition score (BCS), dirty flanks, tarsal joint ulceration, carpal joint injuries, diarrhoea, hampered respiration, lesions on the body due to traumatic injuries, and body coat condition, probably as a result of moving difficulties. The avoidance distance was thus related to the health and welfare of the cows, providing a vital insight into the factors affecting human-animal contact in the shelters.

"Feelings and Fitness" Not "Feelings or Fitness"-The Raison d'être of Conservation Welfare, Which Aligns Conservation and Animal Welfare Objectives

Increasingly, human activities, including those aimed at conserving species and ecosystems (conservation activities) influence not only the survival and fitness but also the welfare of wild animals. Animal welfare relates to how an animal is experiencing its life and encompasses both its physical and mental states. While conservation biology and animal welfare science are both multi-disciplinary fields that use scientific methods to address concerns about animals, their focus and objectives sometimes appear to conflict. However, activities impacting detrimentally on the welfare of individual animals also hamper achievement of some conservation goals, and societal acceptance is imperative to the continuation of conservation activities. Thus, the best outcomes for both disciplines will be achieved through collaboration and knowledge-sharing. Despite this recognition, cross-disciplinary information-sharing and collaborative research and practice in conservation are still rare, with the exception of the zoo context. This paper summarizes key points developed by a group of conservation and animal welfare scientists discussing scientific assessment of wild animal welfare and barriers to progress. The dominant theme emerging was the need for a common language to facilitate cross-disciplinary progress in understanding and safeguarding the welfare of animals of wild species. Current conceptions of welfare implicit in conservation science, based mainly on "fitness" (physical states), need to be aligned with contemporary animal welfare science concepts which emphasize the dynamic integration of "fitness" and "feelings" (mental experiences) to holistically understand animals' welfare states. The way in which animal welfare is characterized influences the way it is evaluated and the emphasis put on different features of welfare, as well as, the importance placed on the outcomes of such evaluations and how that information is used, for example in policy development and decision-making. Salient examples from the New Zealand and Australian context are presented to illustrate. To genuinely progress our understanding and evaluation of wild animal welfare and optimize the aims of both scientific disciplines, conservation and animal welfare scientists should work together to evolve and apply a common understanding of welfare. To facilitate this, we propose the formal development of a new discipline, Conservation Welfare, integrating the expertise of scientists from both fields.

Thermography as a Non-Invasive Measure of Stress and Fear of Humans in Sheep

Simple Summary

The ability to non-invasively measure fear is an essential component of animal welfare assessment. Infrared thermography (IRT) was used to obtain images from five Sarda breed ewes during restraint and immediately after two voluntary animal approach (VAA) tests. Our preliminary results suggest that IRT, combined with behavioral data, is a non-invasive technique that can be useful to assess stress and infer about negative emotions in sheep.

Abstract

No data have been published on the use of infrared thermography (IRT) to evaluate sheep emotions. We assessed whether this technique can be used as a non-invasive measure of negative emotions. Two voluntary animal approach (VAA) tests were conducted (and filmed) on five ewes before and after being restrained. The restraining process was performed by a handler for five minutes. IRT was used during restraint and the VAA tests. The lacrimal caruncle temperature was significantly higher during restraint and in the VAA test after the restraint compared with the VAA test before the restraint (Wilcoxon’s test; p = 0.04). The latency period until first contact was longer in the second VAA test (132 s) than in the first one (60 s). Our preliminary results suggest that IRT, combined with behavioral data, is a non-invasive technique that can be useful to assess stress and infer about negative emotions in sheep.

Personality Research in Mammalian Farm Animals: Concepts, Measures, and Relationship to Welfare

Measuring and understanding personality in animals is a rising scientific field. Much research has been conducted to assess distinctive individual differences in behavior in a large number of species in the past few decades, and increasing numbers of studies include farm animals. Nevertheless, the terminology and definitions used in this broad scientific field are often confusing because different concepts and methods are used to explain often synonymously applied terms, such as personality, temperament and coping style. In the present review we give a comprehensive overview of the concepts and terms currently used in animal personality research and critically reveal how they are defined and what they measure. First, we shortly introduce concepts describing human personality and how these concepts are used to explain animal personality. Second, we present which concepts, methods and measures are applied in farm animal personality research and show that the terminology used seems to be somehow species-related. Finally, we discuss some findings on the possible impact of personality on the welfare of farm animals. The assessment of personality in farm animals is of growing scientific and practical interest. Differences in theoretical frameworks and methodological approaches may also entail the diverse use of the different concepts between basic and applied research approaches. We conclude that more consistency is needed in using different theoretical concepts, terms and measures, especially in farm animal personality research. The terms coping style and temperament, which are used in different ways, should not be examined as independent concepts, but rather should be considered as different aspects of the whole personality concept. Farm animal personality should be increasingly considered for the improvement of animal housing, management, breeding and welfare.

Halal slaughtering, welfare, and empathy in farm animals: a review

Pre-slaughter and slaughter stressors are considered major concerns in animal welfare. Halal slaughtering method is considered one of the slaughtering stressors in livestock. This method seems to cause fear followed by stress in animals mainly due to inhuman handling. In this review, empathy and animal welfare are discussed in light of Islamic sharia and has further linked with animal's physiology and behavioral responses during slaughtering. Islam as a religion forbids slaughtering an animal in front of another animal as through optic, olfactory, and cochlear senses animals can perceive the stress state of conspecifics. This suggests and strengthens the hypothesis that animals being slaughtered in front of each other may produce stress in them. This argument further leads to a claim that animals can experience empathy of each other through olfaction of semiochemicals (stress pheromones) emitted from animals slaughtered in the stressful condition that can be detected by other animals in abattoirs. Hence, research is needed to find out these specific stress pheromones and legislation needs to be adopted in slaughterhouses to isolate the areas of butchery from slaughtering lines to ensure proper guidelines of Halal slaughtering in slaughterhouses.

A Novel Protocol to Assess Acclimation Rate in Bos taurus Heifers during Yard Weaning

Simple Summary

Acclimation protocols for cattle are expected to have benefits for animal handling and production, but the rate at which cattle acclimate has not yet been studied. The current study describes a novel method for assessing the acclimation rate of cattle at a group level during yard weaning. A standardised measure of acclimation rate in cattle will allow further research to be undertaken to identify management practices and selection tools which enhance the capacity of cattle to acclimate to new environments.

Abstract

The speed with which animals acclimate to a new environment could be an important measure of ability to cope with management induced stress. This study developed a measure of acclimation rate in a group of 50 Bos taurus heifers during yard weaning over nine days. We recorded the time and order in which heifers moved through a novel funnel structure into a feeding yard daily. We hypothesised that addition of an obstacle at the entrance would increase the time it took heifers to move through the funnel, but that they would acclimate to the obstacle over a three-day period. The change in latency to move through could then be used as a measure of acclimation rate. We hypothesised that individuals which acclimated to obstacles at a faster rate might display favourable temperament as assessed by flight time. All heifers took longer to move through the funnel after a novel object was introduced, then latency decreased over the following two days while the object was present. This indicates the protocol could be useful for measuring acclimation rate at a group level. Individual acclimation rate variables, measured as change in times and orders of heifers between test days, did not appear to have any consistent relationships with flight time or weight change during or post-weaning (p > 0.05). We concluded that the protocol was inappropriate for assessing acclimation rate at an individual level, due to social effects while testing heifers as a group. Heifers which were consistently one of the first 20 to move through the funnel had a significantly greater average weight 5 and 10 months post-weaning (345 ± 9 kg and 518 ± 10 kg respectively) than heifers which were consistently one of the last 20 through the funnel (311 ± 8 kg and 484 ± 8 kg respectively; p < 0.001). This may indicate order of movement through the funnel was related to feeding motivation or another aspect of temperament not reflected by flight time.

Curious creatures: a multi-taxa investigation of responses to novelty in a zoo environment

The personality trait of curiosity has been shown to increase welfare in humans. If this positive welfare effect is also true for non-humans, animals with high levels of curiosity may be able to cope better with stressful situations than their conspecifics. Before discoveries can be made regarding the effect of curiosity on an animal’s ability to cope in their environment, a way of measuring curiosity across species in different environments must be created to standardise testing. To determine the suitability of novel objects in testing curiosity, species from different evolutionary backgrounds with sufficient sample sizes were chosen. Barbary sheep (Ammotragus lervia) n = 12, little penguins (Eudyptula minor) n = 10, ringtail lemurs (Lemur catta) n = 8, red tailed black cockatoos (Calyptorhynchus banksia) n = 7, Indian star tortoises (Geochelone elegans) n = 5 and red kangaroos (Macropus rufus) n = 5 were presented with a stationary object, a moving object and a mirror. Having objects with different characteristics increased the likelihood individuals would find at least one motivating. Conspecifics were all assessed simultaneously for time to first orientate towards object (s), latency to make contact (s), frequency of interactions, and total duration of interaction (s). Differences in curiosity were recorded in four of the six species; the Barbary sheep and red tailed black cockatoos did not interact with the novel objects suggesting either a low level of curiosity or that the objects were not motivating for these animals. Variation in curiosity was seen between and within species in terms of which objects they interacted with and how long they spent with the objects. This was determined by the speed in which they interacted, and the duration of interest. By using the measure of curiosity towards novel objects with varying characteristics across a range of zoo species, we can see evidence of evolutionary, husbandry and individual influences on their response. Further work to obtain data on multiple captive populations of a single species using a standardised method could uncover factors that nurture the development of curiosity. In doing so, it would be possible to isolate and modify sub-optimal husbandry practices to improve welfare in the zoo environment.

Chronic perinatal odour exposure with heptaldehyde affects odour sensitivity and olfactory system homeostasis in preweaning mice

Exposure to specific odorants in the womb during pregnancy or in the milk during early nursing is known to impact morpho-functional development of the olfactory circuitry of pups. This can be associated with a modification in olfactory sensitivity and behavioural olfactory-based preferences to the perinatally encountered odorants measured at birth, weaning or adult stage. Effects depend on a multitude of factors, such as odorant type, concentration, administration mode and frequency, as well as timing and mice strain. Here, we examined the effect of perinatal exposure to heptaldehyde on the neuro-anatomical development of the olfactory receptor Olfr2 circuitry, olfactory sensitivity and odour preferences of preweaning pups using mI7-IRES-tau-green fluorescent protein mice. We found that perinatal odour exposure through the feed of the dam reduces the response to heptaldehyde and modulates transcript levels of neuronal transduction proteins in the olfactory epithelium of the pups. Furthermore, the number of I7 glomeruli related to Olfr2-expressing OSN is altered in a way similar to that seen with restricted post-natal exposure, in an age-dependent way. These variations are associated with a modification of olfactory behaviours associated with early post-natal odour preferences at weaning.

Pessimism and fearfulness in dairy calves

Animals that experience situations likely to induce negative emotions show changes in judgment associated with pessimism. Few studies have focused on whether animals express stable differences in pessimism and whether these differences are related to personality traits. The first aim of this study was to explore if dairy calves are consistent over time in making judgments under ambiguous situations. Our second aim was to determine whether individual differences in judgment bias are related to conventional personality traits assessed using four standardized tests (Open field, Novel object, Human reactivity and Social motivation test). We subjected animals to two sessions of judgment bias and personality trait tests at 25 and 50 d of age. Individual differences in judgment bias were consistent over time with some animals persistently making more pessimistic choices compared to others. Two main dimensions of personality (Fearfulness and Sociability), obtained through principal component analysis, were also highly consistent over time. Pessimism was related to fearfulness, with more fearful calves making more pessimistic judgments. We conclude that dairy calves differ in the way they perceive and react to ambiguity and that this relates to individual differences in fearfulness.

Development of a laboratory model to assess fear and anxiety in cats

Objectives The objectives of this study were: (1) to develop a laboratory-based model to assess fear and anxiety in cats using the feline open-field test (OFT) and the feline human interaction test (HIT); and (2) to validate the model using diazepam, a known anxiolytic. Methods Laboratory-housed cats (n = 41) were first classified as fearful, mildly fearful or non-fearful by a technician familiar with the cats and also by veterinary behaviorists (GL, JL), by assessing the cats' behavior in their home rooms. In experiment 1, each cat's behavior was assessed in an OFT and an HIT. In experiment 2, after administration of the anxiolytic diazepam, a subset of the cats was re-tested. Results In experiment 1, the OFT revealed significant group effects on two measures: duration of inactivity, and vocalization. Fearful animals had significantly longer periods of inactivity than non-fearful animals. Non-fearful and mildly fearful cats vocalized more frequently than fearful cats. In the HIT, fearful cats travelled less than non-fearful and mildly fearful cats. Fearful and mildly fearful animals had significantly longer durations of inactivity, and non-fearful and mildly fearful cats had a significantly higher frequency of vocalization compared with fearful cats. In experiment 2, in the OFT, treatment with diazepam caused an increase in distance travelled, shorter durations of inactivity, and more frequent inactivity and vocalization. In the HIT, diazepam increased distance travelled and decreased duration of inactivity. Fearful cats spent significantly less time near the human compared with non-fearful cats, and this persisted under diazepam. Conclusions and relevance The feline OFT and feline HIT can be used jointly to assess the effects of medications or other therapies on fear and anxiety in the domestic cat.

ANIMAL BEHAVIOR AND WELL-BEING SYMPOSIUM: Interaction between coping style/personality, stress, and welfare: Relevance for domestic farm animals

This paper will argue that understanding animal welfare and the individual vulnerability to stress-related disease requires a fundamental understanding of functional individual variation as it occurs in nature as well as the underlying neurobiology and neuroendocrinology. Ecological studies in feral populations of mice, fish, and birds start to recognize the functional significance of phenotypes that individually differ in their behavioral and neuroendocrine response to environmental challenge. Recent studies indicate that the individual variation within a species may buffer the species for strong fluctuations in the natural habitat. Similarly, evolutionary ancient behavioral trait characteristics have now been identified in a range of domestic farm animals including cattle, pigs, and horses. Individual variation in behavior can be summarized in a 3-dimensional model with coping style, emotionality, and sociality as independent dimensions. These dimensions can be considered trait characteristics that are stable over time and across situations within the individual. This conceptual model has several consequences. First, the coping style dimension is strongly associated with differential stress vulnerability. Social stress studies show that proactive individuals are resilient under stable environmental conditions but vulnerable when outcome expectancies are violated. Reactive individuals are, in fact, rather flexible and seem to adapt more easily to a changing environment. A second consequence relates to genetics and breeding. Genetic selection for one trait usually implies selection for other traits as well. It is discussed that a more balanced breeding program that takes into account biologically functional temperamental traits will lead to more robust domestic farm animals. Finally, the relationship between temperamental traits, animal production, fitness, and welfare is discussed.

Adaptive capacities from survival to stress responses of two isogenic lines of rainbow trout fed a plant-based diet

The composition of feed for farmed salmonids has strongly evolved during the last decades due to the substitution of fishery-derived fish oil and fishmeal by ingredients of plant origin. Little information is available regarding the effects of this transition on adaptive capacities in fish. Two rainbow trout isogenic lines, known for their divergent ability to grow on a plant-based diet (PBD), were fed for seven months from first feeding either a fully PBD or a control marine-resources diet and were compared for their growing and survival capacities over time and their behavioral and stress responses at similar sizes but different ages. Although fish displayed similar appetitive behaviour, the two lines were highly affected by the PBD translated in decreased growth and apathetic behaviour, but also stronger stress responses displayed by stronger cortisol increases and more stress-related behaviour when isolated. The two lines were found to be similarly sensitive to a PBD for the assessed stress-related parameters, but one line displayed a lower survival during the early rearing period. Overall, these results suggest that a PBD supplied to fish from the alevin stage has strong effects on physiological and behavioural parameters, with possible impairment of fish welfare, but also genome-dependent survival.

Testing responses to novelty in cattle: behavioural and physiological responses to novel food

In order to develop a behavioural test as well as gain information about behavioural response to novel food, we performed four experiments with cattle kept in tie-stalls and observed the behaviour (approach/avoidance, self-grooming and consummatory behaviour) for 10 (experiment 3 and 4) or 30 (experiment 1 and 2) min after provision of novel food.

In experiment 1, the effects of the novelty of the feeding method were tested using nine heifers provided with 2 kg of their usual food from the usual fodder truck or from a basket made of plastic. The novel feeding method induced increased sniffing, decreased duration of eating and increased self-grooming.

The effects of the degree of novelty of a food were examined in experiment 2 using heifers (no. = 8 to 12) and three concentrations of fish oil (1•5, 6 or 24 g/kg) and eucalyptus oil (5, 20 or 80 drops per kg) added to the usual food. Increasing the concentration of eucalyptus oil in the food led to changes in behaviour, while the addition of fish oil led to a less clear response. However, both suggested that the behaviour reflected the degree of novelty in the food. Behavioural responses to two novel foods (4 kg carrots v. 80 drops per kg of eucalyptus oil added to the usual food) as well as individual characteristics and repeatability within 72 h were examined in experiment 3. The behavioural responses to the novel foods differed, showing a higher level of approach and attempts to eat the carrots, and responses to the two different novel foods were not correlated. At the second provision, the acceptability of the carrots was greater, however responses to carrots showed an acceptable repeatability.

Finally, the cardiac (heart rate) and behavioural responses to usual food and novel food (4 kg carrots) were compared in experiment 4. Provision of novel food led to behavioural signs of motivational conflict and neophobia while the heart rate tended to be lower than when the cows were provided with usual food.

These results provide evidence that behavioural responses to novel food in cattle include signs of motivational conflict between eating motivation and neophobia, reflecting the degree of novelty in the test situation including the feeding method. However, palatability of the food might also affect the responses, and the data on heart rate suggest that novel food is not a fear-inducing stimulus.

Influence of environmental enrichment on welfare-related behavioural and physiological parameters in growing pigs

Three hundred and twenty pigs were reared from birth to slaughter at 21 weeks in either barren or enriched environments. The barren environments were defined as intensive housing (slatted floors and minimum recommended space allowances) and the enriched environments incorporated extra space including an area which contained peat and straw in a rack. Behavioural observations showed that environmental enrichment reduced time spent inactive and time spent involved in harmful social and aggressive behaviour (P< 0·001). Each pig was individually exposed to a novel object during a novel pen test at 18 weeks of age and behavioural, heart rate and plasma cortisol responses were recorded. At slaughter plasma cortisol levels were measured, adrenal glands were weighed and hearts were examined for endothelial haemorrhages. Pigs from enriched environments appeared less fearful during the novel pen test by showing a shorter latency to contact the novel object (P< 0·001) and spending more time in contact with it (P< 0·05). Plasma cortisol responses to the novel pen test tended to be higher in pigs from enriched environments (P> 0·05) and pigs from enriched environments had significantly higher cortisol levels at slaughter (P< 0·05). Adrenal weights were greater in pigs from barren environments (P< 0·05) and it is suggested that chronic activation of the pituitary-adrenal axis in barren environments led to a suppression of cortisol responses to acute stress. The higher cortisol responses to the novel pen test in pigs from enriched environments may also have resulted from greater levels of behavioural activity. This could also explain the higher maximum heart rates in pigs from enriched environments during the 1st min of the test (P< 0-05) and during the period prior to the test when they were being driven towards the test arena (P< 0-05). However, the fact that enriched pigs also showed a greater number of lesions to the endothelium of the heart (P< 0-05) may mean they had a more reactive sympathetic nervous system.

The impact of stress on the prevalence of prednisolone in bovine urine: A metabolic fingerprinting approach

Recent studies support the hypothesis that the glucocorticoid prednisolone can be formed from cortisol under influence of stress. To evaluate this hypothesis, urine samples of supposedly non-stressed bovines (at the farm) and bovines subjected to two different forms of stress, i.e. upon slaughter (natural stress) or following administration of a synthetic analog of the adrenocorticotropic hormone (pharmacologically-induced stress) were analysed, and their urinary cortisol and prednisolone levels evaluated. At the farm, none of the examined samples exhibited urinary prednisolone levels higher than the CCα (0.09 μg L(-1)). Upon slaughter or following synthetically induced stress, significantly positive correlations between cortisol and prednisolone could be demonstrated, 0.52 and 0.69, respectively. Of all prednisolone-positive urine samples (n=84), only one showed a prednisolone levels (i.e. 6.45 μg L(-1)) above the threshold level of 5 μg L(-1) suggested by the European Reference Laboratories. Subsequently, an untargeted analysis was performed (metabolic fingerprinting) to characterize the urinary metabolite patterns related to the three different cattle groups. In this context, multivariate statistics assigned a total of 169 differentiating metabolites as playing a key role in the urinary pattern in response to stress. Three of these ions were defined as steroids using an in-house created database. As a result, the metabolic fingerprinting approach proved to be a powerful tool to classify unknown bovine urine samples that tested positive for prednisolone, while providing information about the stress status of the animal.