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Vardy ERLC, MacDonald A, Ford S, Hofman DL. Phenylketonuria, co-morbidity, and ageing: A review. J Inherit Metab Dis 2020; 43:167-178. [PMID: 31675115 DOI: 10.1002/jimd.12186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2019] [Revised: 10/27/2019] [Accepted: 10/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Phenylketonuria (PKU) is a metabolic condition which, left untreated, results in severe and irreversible brain damage. Newborn screening and the development of the low phenylalanine (Phe) diet have transformed the outcomes for people with PKU. Those who have benefited from early treatment are now approaching their fifth and sixth decade. It is therefore timely to consider multi-morbidity in PKU and the effects of ageing, in parallel with the wider benefits of emerging treatment options in addition to dietary relaxation. We have conducted the first literature review of co-morbidity and ageing in the context of PKU. Avenues explored have emerged from limited study of multi-morbidity to date and the knowledge and critical enquiry of the authors. Findings suggest PKU to have a wider impact than brain development, and result in several intriguing questions that require investigation to attain the best outcomes for people with PKU in adulthood moving through to older age. We recognise the difficulty in studying longitudinal outcomes in rare diseases and emphasise the necessity to develop PKU registries and cohorts that facilitate well-designed studies to answer some of the questions raised in this review. Whilst awaiting new information in these areas we propose that clinicians engage with patients to make personalised and well-informed decisions around Phe control and assessment for co-morbidity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma R L C Vardy
- Department of Ageing and Complex Medicine, Salford Royal NHS Foundation Trust, Salford Care Organisation, Part of Northern Care Alliance NHS Group, Salford, UK
| | - Anita MacDonald
- Department of dietetics, Birmingham Women's and Children's NHS Trust, Birmingham, UK
| | - Suzanne Ford
- National Society for Phenylketonuria, Preston, UK
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Pakula MM, Maier TJ, Vorup-Jensen T. Insight on the impacts of free amino acids and their metabolites on the immune system from a perspective of inborn errors of amino acid metabolism. Expert Opin Ther Targets 2017; 21:611-626. [PMID: 28441889 DOI: 10.1080/14728222.2017.1323879] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Amino acids (AAs) support a broad range of functions in living organisms, including several that affect the immune system. The functions of the immune system are affected when free AAs are depleted or in excess because of external factors, such as starvation, or because of genetic factors, such as inborn errors of metabolism. Areas covered: In this review, we discuss the current insights into how free AAs affect immune responses. When possible, we make comparisons to known disease states resulting from inborn errors of metabolism, in which changed levels of AAs or AA metabolites provide insight into the impact of AAs on the human immune system in vivo. We also explore the literature describing how changes in AA levels might provide pharmaceutical targets for safe immunomodulatory treatment. Expert opinion: The impact of free AAs on the immune system is a neglected topic in most immunology textbooks. That neglect is undeserved, because free AAs have both direct and indirect effects on the immune system. Consistent choices of pre-clinical models and better strategies for creating formulations are required to gain clinical impact.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Thorsten J Maier
- a Department of Biomedicine , Aarhus University , Aarhus , Denmark
| | - Thomas Vorup-Jensen
- a Department of Biomedicine , Aarhus University , Aarhus , Denmark.,b Center for Neurodegenerative Inflammation Prevention (NEURODIN) , Aarhus University , Aarhus , Denmark.,c Interdisciplinary Nanoscience Center , Aarhus University , Aarhus , Denmark.,d The Lundbeck Foundation Nanomedicine Center for Individualized Management of Tissue Damage and Regeneration (LUNA) , Aarhus University , Aarhus , Denmark.,e MEMBRANES Research center , Aarhus University , Aarhus , Denmark
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Uyangaa E, Lee HK, Eo SK. Glutamine and leucine provide enhanced protective immunity against mucosal infection with herpes simplex virus type 1. Immune Netw 2012; 12:196-206. [PMID: 23213313 PMCID: PMC3509164 DOI: 10.4110/in.2012.12.5.196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2012] [Revised: 09/13/2012] [Accepted: 09/14/2012] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Besides their role as building blocks of protein, there are growing evidences that some amino acids have roles in regulating key metabolic pathways that are necessary for maintenance, growth, reproduction, and immunity. Here, we evaluated the modulatory functions of several amino acids in protective immunity against mucosal infection of herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1). We found that glutamine (Gln) and leucine (Leu) showed enhanced protective immunity to HSV-1 mucosal infection when two administration of Gln and single administration of Leu per day, but not when administered in combinations. Ameliorated clinical signs of HSV-1 challenged mice by the intraperitoneal administration of Gln and Leu were closely associated with viral burden and IFN-γ production in the vaginal tract at 2 and 4 days post-infection. In addition, the enhanced production of vaginal IFN-γ appeared to be caused by NK and HSV-1 antigen-specific Th1-type CD4+ T cells recruited into vaginal tract of mice treated with Gln and Leu, which indicates that IFN-γ, produced by NK and Th1-type CD4+ T cells, may be critical to control the outcome of diseases caused by HSV-1 mucosal infection. Collectively, our results indicate that intraperitoneal administration of Gln and Leu following HSV-1 mucosal infection could provide beneficial effects for the modulation of protective immunity, but dosage and frequency of administration should be carefully considered, because higher frequency and overdose of Gln and Leu, or their combined treatment, showed detrimental effects to protective immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erdenebileg Uyangaa
- College of Veterinary Medicine and Bio-Safety Research Institute, Chonbuk National University, Jeonju 561-756, Korea
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Poulopoulou C, Markakis I, Davaki P, Tsaltas E, Rombos A, Hatzimanolis A, Vassilopoulos D. Aberrant modulation of a delayed rectifier potassium channel by glutamate in Alzheimer's disease. Neurobiol Dis 2010; 37:339-48. [DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2009.10.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2009] [Revised: 09/08/2009] [Accepted: 10/10/2009] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
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den Eynden JV, Ali SS, Horwood N, Carmans S, Brône B, Hellings N, Steels P, Harvey RJ, Rigo JM. Glycine and glycine receptor signalling in non-neuronal cells. Front Mol Neurosci 2009; 2:9. [PMID: 19738917 PMCID: PMC2737430 DOI: 10.3389/neuro.02.009.2009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2009] [Accepted: 07/23/2009] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Glycine is an inhibitory neurotransmitter acting mainly in the caudal part of the central nervous system. Besides this neurotransmitter function, glycine has cytoprotective and modulatory effects in different non-neuronal cell types. Modulatory effects were mainly described in immune cells, endothelial cells and macroglial cells, where glycine modulates proliferation, differentiation, migration and cytokine production. Activation of glycine receptors (GlyRs) causes membrane potential changes that in turn modulate calcium flux and downstream effects in these cells. Cytoprotective effects were mainly described in renal cells, hepatocytes and endothelial cells, where glycine protects cells from ischemic cell death. In these cell types, glycine has been suggested to stabilize porous defects that develop in the plasma membranes of ischemic cells, leading to leakage of macromolecules and subsequent cell death. Although there is some evidence linking these effects to the activation of GlyRs, they seem to operate in an entirely different mode from classical neuronal subtypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jimmy Van den Eynden
- Institute of Biomedical Research, Hasselt University and transnationale Universiteit LimburgDiepenbeek, Belgium
| | - Sheen Saheb Ali
- Institute of Biomedical Research, Hasselt University and transnationale Universiteit LimburgDiepenbeek, Belgium
| | - Nikki Horwood
- Kennedy Institute of Rheumatology Division, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, Charing Cross CampusLondon, UK
| | - Sofie Carmans
- Institute of Biomedical Research, Hasselt University and transnationale Universiteit LimburgDiepenbeek, Belgium
| | - Bert Brône
- Institute of Biomedical Research, Hasselt University and transnationale Universiteit LimburgDiepenbeek, Belgium
| | - Niels Hellings
- Institute of Biomedical Research, Hasselt University and transnationale Universiteit LimburgDiepenbeek, Belgium
| | - Paul Steels
- Institute of Biomedical Research, Hasselt University and transnationale Universiteit LimburgDiepenbeek, Belgium
| | - Robert J. Harvey
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, University of LondonLondon, UK
| | - Jean-Michel Rigo
- Institute of Biomedical Research, Hasselt University and transnationale Universiteit LimburgDiepenbeek, Belgium
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6
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Glutamine supplementation increases Th1-cytokine responses in murine intestinal intraepithelial lymphocytes. Cytokine 2008; 44:92-5. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cyto.2008.06.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2007] [Accepted: 06/27/2008] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Poulopoulou C, Markakis I, Davaki P, Nikolaou C, Poulopoulos A, Raptis E, Vassilopoulos D. Modulation of Voltage-Gated Potassium Channels in Human T Lymphocytes by Extracellular Glutamate. Mol Pharmacol 2005. [DOI: 10.1124/mol.67.3.856] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
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Chakrabarti L, Bandyopadhyay BC, Poddar MK. Is age-induced decline in immune response associated with hypothalamic glutamate receptor density and dietary protein? Nutr Neurosci 2002; 4:375-87. [PMID: 11842914 DOI: 10.1080/1028415x.2001.11747374] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Manipulation of dietary protein has been found to be the most useful dictator in the age-associated decline of neuroimmune activity in mammals. In the present study, we sought to clarify the effect of dietary protein on age-induced alterations of hypothalamic glutamatergic activity and immune response. The hypothalamic glutamatergic activity and immune response were found to increase and decrease, respectively, with the increase in age of rats from young (3 months) to old (18 months) maintained with normal (20%) protein diet. Intake of low (5%) protein diet (LPD) and high (40%) protein diet (HPD) under short-term period (7 days) failed to alter the age-associated loss of immune response and increase in hypothalamic glutamatergic activity. However, long-term (30 days) supplementation of LPD retarded the age-induced decline in immune response and increase in hypothalamic glutamatergic activity, whereas, HPD consumption under similar condition potentiated the age-related immunosuppression and increase in hypothalamic glutamatergic activity. These results suggest that (a) the age-associated immunosuppression may be inversely related to the hypothalamic glutamatergic activity and (b) consumption of diets having variable quantity of protein without variation of calorie content modulates immune response and hypothalamic glutamatergic activity depending upon age and duration of dietary supplementation.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Chakrabarti
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Calcutta, India
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Chang WK, Yang KD, Shaio MF. Effect of glutamine on Th1 and Th2 cytokine responses of human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Clin Immunol 1999; 93:294-301. [PMID: 10600341 DOI: 10.1006/clim.1999.4788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Decreased glutamine concentrations are found in patients with catabolic stress and are related to susceptibility to infections. In this study, we evaluated the role of glutamine in Th1/Th2 cytokine responses. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells were stimulated with phytohemagglutinin (PHA), live attenuated bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG), or measles virus in the presence of different glutamine concentrations. We found that glutamine at an optimal concentration (0.6 mM) significantly enhanced PHA-stimulated lymphocyte proliferation as well as Th1 [interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) and interleukin-2 (IL-2)] and Th2 cytokine (IL-4 and IL-10) production. In the absence of glutamine, BCG and measles virus elicited minimal lymphocyte proliferation, whereas BCG enhanced Th1 cytokine response and measles virus promoted Th2 cytokine response. Interestingly, addition of glutamine promoted the BCG-elicited Th1 cytokine response (IFN-gamma), but suppressed the measles-induced Th2 cytokine response (IL-10). These results suggest that appropriate glutamine levels may influence host responses to different antigens and microorganisms. Furthermore, predominately Th1, but not Th2, cytokine responses required the presence of optimal concentrations of glutamine.
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Affiliation(s)
- W K Chang
- Graduate Institute of Medical Sciences, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan, Republic of China
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Schlottfeldt J, Blazina LR, Wannmacher CM, Wajner M. The effect of organic acids on phytohaemagglutinin-activated proliferation of human lymphocytes in vitro. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF IMMUNOPHARMACOLOGY 1995; 17:175-82. [PMID: 7558511 DOI: 10.1016/0192-0561(95)00003-k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
The present study assesses the effects of 25 organic acids on in vitro proliferation of human peripheral lymphocyte stimulated with phytohaemagglutinin (PHA). Lymphocytes were cultured in flat-bottomed 96-well microplates at 37 degrees C for 96 h in the presence of the mitogen and of one acid. The concentrations of organic acids tested in the cultures were from 1 to 5 mM, corresponding to those usually found in the blood of patients with organic acidaemias. Cellular growth was measured by the incorporation of 6[3H]-thymidine into cellular DNA. We observed that tiglic (2-methylcrotonic), alpha-keto-beta-methylvaleric, aminoadipic, sebacic and alpha-ketoisocaproic acids strongly inhibited lymphocyte DNA synthesis, whereas alpha-ketoisovaleric, propionic, alpha-hydroxy-beta-methylvaleric, alpha-methylbutyric and isobutyric acids moderately suppressed DNA synthesis. Lactic and ethylmalonic acids, however, stimulated DNA synthesis. The most inhibitory acids were added to cultures at different times after the beginning of the incubation period. Except for tiglic acid, whose action persisted even after 48 h from the onset of cultures, the others acted only when added during the first 24 h. The present study demonstrated that organic acids modulate DNA synthesis in mitogen-stimulated human lymphocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Schlottfeldt
- Departamento de Bioquimica, UFRGS Unidade de Genetica Medica, Porto Alegre, Brazil
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Wajner M, Schlottfeldt JL, Ckless K, Wannmacher CM. Immunosuppressive effects of organic acids accumulating in patients with maple syrup urine disease. J Inherit Metab Dis 1995; 18:165-8. [PMID: 7564237 DOI: 10.1007/bf00711757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- M Wajner
- Department of Biochemistry, UFRGS, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
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