ATP and GTP are essential for olfactory response

Enhancement of odorant-induced responses in olfactory receptor neurons by zinc nanoparticles

Zinc metal nanoparticles in picomolar concentrations strongly enhance odorant responses of olfactory sensory neurons. One- to 2-nm metallic particles contain 40-300 zinc metal atoms, which are not in an ionic state. We exposed rat olfactory epithelium to metal nanoparticles and measured odorant responses by electroolfactogram and whole-cell patch clamp. A small amount of zinc nanoparticles added to an odorant or an extracellular/intracellular particle perfusion strongly increases the odorant response in a dose-dependent manner. Zinc nanoparticles alone produce no odor effects. Copper, gold, or silver nanoparticles do not produce effects similar to those of zinc. If zinc nanoparticles are replaced by Zn(+2) ions in the same concentration range, we observed a reduction of the olfactory receptor neuron odorant response. Based on these observations, we hypothesize that zinc nanoparticles are closely located to the interface between the guanine nucleotide-binding protein and the receptor proteins and are involved in transferring signals in the initial events of olfaction. Our results suggest that zinc metal nanoparticles can be used to enhance and sustain the initial olfactory events.

Immunolocalisation of P2X and P2Y nucleotide receptors in the rat nasal mucosa

Purinoceptor subtypes were localised to various tissue types present within the nasal cavity of the rat, using immunohistochemical methods. P2X3 receptor immunoreactivity was localised in the primary olfactory neurones located both in the olfactory epithelium and vomeronasal organs (VNO) and also on subepithelial nerve fibres in the respiratory region. P2X5 receptor immunoreactivity was found in the squamous, respiratory and olfactory epithelial cells of the rat nasal mucosa. P2X7 receptor immunoreactivity was also expressed in epithelial cells and colocalised with caspase 9 (an apoptotic marker), suggesting an association with apoptosis and epithelial turnover. P2Y1 receptor immunoreactivity was found within the respiratory epithelium and submucosal glandular tissue. P2Y2 receptor immunoreactivity was localised to the mucus-secreting cells within the VNO. The possible functional roles of these receptors are discussed.

Cellular Distribution and Functions of P2 Receptor Subtypes in Different Systems

This review is aimed at providing readers with a comprehensive reference article about the distribution and function of P2 receptors in all the organs, tissues, and cells in the body. Each section provides an account of the early history of purinergic signaling in the organ?cell up to 1994, then summarizes subsequent evidence for the presence of P2X and P2Y receptor subtype mRNA and proteins as well as functional data, all fully referenced. A section is included describing the plasticity of expression of P2 receptors during development and aging as well as in various pathophysiological conditions. Finally, there is some discussion of possible future developments in the purinergic signaling field.

Inhibition and enhancement of odorant-induced cAMP accumulation in rat olfactory cilia by antibodies directed against G alpha S/olf- and G alpha i-protein subunits

The odorant-induced accumulation of cAMP can be inhibited by antibodies directed against G alpha s/olf. In contrast, antibodies raised against G alpha i-subunits caused a strong enhancement of the odorant-induced cAMP accumulation. Western blotting and immunoelectron microscopy revealed the presence of both G alpha s/olf- and G alpha i-subunits in rat cilia preparations. The existence of both stimulatory and inhibitory odorant-induced regulation of adenylyl cyclase activity in olfactory cilia may indicate that an initial integration of different odorant stimuli begins at the level of primary reactions in the same effector enzyme.

Cytochemical localization of cyclic 3',5'-nucleotide phosphodiesterase activity in the rat olfactory mucosa

Cyclic 3',5'-nucleotide phosphodiesterase activity was demonstrated cytochemically in the rat olfactory mucosa using cyclic AMP as substrate. Strong activity was observed on the plasma membrane of the cilia, dendritic knob and axon of olfactory cells; weak activity was apparent on the membrane of the dendritic shaft and cell body. This suggests that the cyclic AMP produced by odorant-sensitive adenylate cyclase in the dendritic terminal acts mainly in its original site and to a lesser extent in the dendritic shaft and cell body. The enzyme also hydrolysed cyclic GMP but the hydrolysis was not as great as in the case of cyclic AMP. Besides its presence in olfactory cells, enzymatic activity was also observed on the plasma membrane of basal cells and certain supporting cells with an astrocyte-like morphology.

Four cases of direct ion channel gating by cyclic nucleotides

Four different nucleotide-gated ion channels are discussed in terms of their biophysical properties and their importance in cell physiology. Channels activated directly by cGMP are present in vertebrate and invertebrate photoreceptors. In both cases cGMP increases the fraction of time the channel remains in the open state. At least three cGMP molecules are involved in channel opening in vertebrate photoreceptors and the concentration of the cyclic nucleotide to obtain the half maximal effect is about 15 microM. The light-dependent channel of both vertebrates and invertebrates is poorly cation selective. The vertebrate channel allows divalent cations to pass through 10-15-fold more easily than monovalent ions. In agreement with their preference for divalent cations, this channel is blocked by l-cis Dialtazem, a molecule that blocks certain types of calcium channels. In olfactory neurons a channel activated by both cAMP and cGMP is found and, as in the light-dependent channel, several molecules of the nucleotide are needed to open the channel with a half maximal effect obtained in the range of 1-40 microM. The channel is poorly cationic selective. A K+ channel directly and specifically activated by cAMP is found in Drosophila larval muscle. At least three cAMP molecules are involved in the opening reaction. Half-maximal effect is obtained at about 50 microM. This channel is blocked by micromolar amount of tetraethylammonium applied internally. Interestingly, this channel has a probability of opening 10-20-fold larger in the mutant dunce, a mutant that possesses abnormally elevated intracellular cAMP level, than in the wild type.

Transmembrane currents in frog olfactory cilia

We have measured transmembrane currents in intact single cilia from frog olfactory receptor neurons. A single cilium on a neuron was sucked into a patch pipette, and a high-resistance seal was formed near the base of the cilium. Action potentials could be induced by applying suction or a voltage ramp to the ciliary membrane. A transient current was seen in some cells on stimulation with odorants. After excision from the cell, most of the cilia showed increased conductance in a bath containing cAMP, indicating that the cytoplasmic face of the ciliary membrane was accessible to the bath. The estimated resistance of a single cilium was surprisingly low.

Guanylate cyclase in olfactory cilia from rat and pig

A guanylate cyclase was identified in cilia from rat and pig olfactory epithelia. Enzyme activities were 200-250 and 90-100 pmol/min.mg-1, respectively. Activity required the presence of non-ionic detergents, e.g., 0.1% Lubrol PX. MnGTP, not MgGTP was used as a substrate. Furthermore, 0.9 mM free Mn2+ was necessary for optimal activity indicating a regulatory site for a divalent cation. The guanylate cyclase displayed sigmoidal Michaelis-Menten kinetics suggesting cooperativity between MnGTP and enzyme. S0.5 was 160 microM MnGTP. The Hill coefficient of 1.7 indicates that more than one class of substrate-binding sites interact in a positive cooperative manner. ATP inhibited the enzyme and linearized plots of substrate kinetics with MnGTP. SH-Blocking agents reversibly inhibited enzyme activity. Sodium azide and nitroprusside were without effect as were several odorants. A guanylate cyclase activity in cilia from tracheal tissue had properties similar to the olfactory enzyme.

Immunohistochemical localization of guanine nucleotide-binding proteins in rat olfactory epithelium during development

It has recently been proposed that guanine nucleotide (GTP)-binding proteins (G-proteins) are involved in transducing stimuli in olfactory receptor neurons. If this is the case, G-proteins should be expressed when receptor cells first generate action potentials in response to odorants, i.e. in the rat fetus on the 16th embryonic day (E16). We have done an immunohistochemical study to determine when the alpha- and beta-subunits of the stimulatory G-protein (Gs), are expressed in developing rat olfactory epithelium. The 3 primary antisera used were monospecific polyclonal antibodies generated in rabbits by immunization with synthetic peptides, the amino acid sequences of which matched a portion of the alpha- or beta-subunits of stimulatory G-protein. Both subunits were present in olfactory axons at E15 and in olfactory receptor cell cilia at E16, the day when cilia first sprout in these cells. As development progressed and more cilia grew, most were immunoreactive with antisera to both subunits. Examination of specimens with electron microscopic immunocytochemistry confirmed the localization. Not all cilia on a given olfactory cell were stained, in either fetal or juvenile specimens. The observation that G-proteins are expressed in cilia when action potentials are first demonstrated supports the hypothesis that G-proteins are involved in signal transduction in olfactory receptor cells.

Ion channels from chemosensory olfactory neurons

The olfactory epithelium has the ability to respond to a large number of volatile compounds of small molecular weight. Ultimately, such a property lies on a specialized type of neuron, the olfactory receptor cell. In the presence of odorants, the olfactory receptor neuron responds with action potentials whose frequency depends on odorant concentration. The primary events in the process of olfactory transduction are thought to occur at the cilia of olfactory receptor neurons and involve the binding of odorants to receptor molecules followed by the opening of ion channels. A crucial step in understanding olfactory transduction requires identifying the mechanisms that regulate the electrical activity of olfactory cells. In the last couple of years, patch-clamp recording from isolated olfactory cells and reconstitution of olfactory membranes in planar lipid bilayers have begun to shed light on some of these mechanisms. Although the information emerging from such studies is still preliminary, there are already well-defined hypotheses on the molecular events that might underlie the primary events in olfactory transduction. Currently, attention is being focused on the notions that second messengers might be involved in the activation of ion channels in olfactory cilia, and that odorant binding to a receptor molecule might lead directly to the gating of ion channels in chemosensory olfactory membranes. The coming years promise to be exciting ones in the field of olfactory transduction. We have now the necessary tools to be able to confront hypotheses and experimental facts.

Ion transport across the frog olfactory mucosa: the action of cyclic nucleotides on the basal and odorant-stimulated states

The action of cyclic nucleotides on the short-circuit current across the isolated bullfrog olfactory mucosa was studied both in the absence and presence of odorants. 8-Bromo-cAMP applied to the ciliated side of the mucosa caused a concentration-dependent, reversible increase in the basal short-circuit current, but not when it was applied to the submucosal side. The current had a sigmoidal concentration dependence described by the Hill equation. The magnitude of the odorant-evoked current was enhanced after bathing the ciliated side with cAMP analogs or modulators of intracellular cAMP. GTP gamma S added to the ciliated side increased the odorant-evoked current, while GDP beta S caused a decrease. Current transients induced by stimulating the ciliated side with either pulses of odorant or 8-bromo-cAMP were partially suppressed by amiloride, but only when amiloride and stimulant were presented simultaneously. Pulses of 8-bromo-cAMP and odorant presented simultaneously resulted in currents that added nonlinearly. In the absence of odorant, 8-bromo-cGMP caused a concentration-dependent decrease in net inward current that was reversed by 8-bromo-cAMP. Odorant-evoked currents were also reduced by 8-bromo-cGMP, and these could not be reversed by 8-bromo-cAMP. The results indicate that one type of olfactory transduction process involves the activation by cAMP of an inward current through an amiloride-sensitive apical ion channel and that this mechanism is mediated by a stimulatory G-protein.

Functional reconstitution of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors in artificial lipid bilayers

Functional reconstitution of the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors was achieved by adding synaptic membranes from rat brain to large planar bimolecular lipid membranes (BLMs). The reconstituted receptors exhibited several properties of the NDMA receptors described using a variety of biochemical and electrophysiological techniques. Addition of NMDA at concentrations between 5 and 50 microM produced large, voltage-dependent increases in membrane conductivity. The selective antagonist of NMDA receptors, amino-2-phosphonopentanoate (AP-7), totally blocked the response of the bilayers to NMDA as did micromolar concentrations of magnesium; this latter effect was also voltage-dependent. These results indicate that BLMs can be used to study the ion channels and regulatory processes associated with NMDA receptors from adult brain in ways that could not be accomplished with conventional neurophysiological techniques.