Beta 2-microglobulin decrease in cerebrospinal fluid from parkinsonian patients

Elevated levels of Interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, tumor necrosis factor-α, epidermal growth factor, and β2-microglobulin levels in gingival crevicular fluid during human Orthodontic tooth movement (OTM)

Aim

The aim of this study was to identify and quantify the various cytokines in human gingival crevicular fluid (GCF), and to investigate the changes in their levels during orthodontic tooth movement (OTM).

Materials and Methods

A statistically significant no. of subjects (n = 10 and mean age = 15.6 years) were included in the study. A maxillary cuspid of each subject having one treatment for distal orthodontic tooth movement served as the experimental tooth, whereas the contralateral cuspids were used as controls. Gingival crevicular fluid (GCF) around the experimental and the two control teeth was collected from each subject immediately before activation, and at 1, 24, and 168 hours after the initiation of tooth movement.

Result

ELISAs were used to determine cytokine levels. The concentrations of interleukin (IL)-1lβ, IL-6, tumor necrosis factor-α, epidermal growth factor, and β2-microglobulin were significantly higher in the experimental group than in the controls at 24 hr after the experiment was initiated. All the cytokines remained at baseline levels throughout the experiment for the control groups.

Conclusion

Since all cytokines in GCF play an important role in the bone remodelling processes in vivo, the present results indicate that the changes in cytokines in GCF are associated with OTM.

Prolyl oligopeptidase and dipeptidyl peptidase II/dipeptidyl peptidase IV ratio in the cerebrospinal fluid in Parkinson's disease: historical overview and future prospects

Prolyl oligopeptidase (also named prolyl endopeptidase; PREP) hydrolyzes the Pro-Xaa bonds of biologically active oligopeptides on their carboxyl side. In 1987, we detected PREP activity in human cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) using highly sensitive liquid chromatography-fluorometry with succinyl-Gly-Pro-4-methyl-coumarin amide as a new synthetic substrate, and found a marked decrease in its activity in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) from patients with Parkinson's disease (PD) as compared with its level in control patients without neurological diseases. In 2013, Hannula et al. found co-localization of PREP with α-synuclein in the postmortem PD brain. Several recent studies also suggest that the level of PREP in the brain of PD patients may be related to dopamine (DA) cell death via promotion of α-synuclein oligomerization and that inhibitors of PREP may play a neuroprotective role in PD. Although the relationship between another family of prolyl oligopeptidase enzymes, dipeptidyl peptidase II (DPP II) and dipeptidyl peptidase IV (DPP IV), and α-synuclein in the PD brain is not yet clear, we found that the DPP II activity/DPP IV activity ratio in the CSF was significantly increased in PD patients. This review discusses the possibility of PREP as well as the DPP II/DPP IV ratio in the CSF as potential biomarkers of PD.

Cerebrospinal fluid biochemical studies in patients with Parkinson's disease: toward a potential search for biomarkers for this disease

The blood-brain barrier supplies brain tissues with nutrients and filters certain compounds from the brain back to the bloodstream. In several neurodegenerative diseases, including Parkinson's disease (PD), there are disruptions of the blood-brain barrier. Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) has been widely investigated in PD and in other parkinsonian syndromes with the aim of establishing useful biomarkers for an accurate differential diagnosis among these syndromes. This review article summarizes the studies reported on CSF levels of many potential biomarkers of PD. The most consistent findings are: (a) the possible role of CSF urate on the progression of the disease; (b) the possible relations of CSF total tau and phosphotau protein with the progression of PD and with the preservation of cognitive function in PD patients; (c) the possible value of CSF beta-amyloid 1-42 as a useful marker of further cognitive decline in PD patients, and (d) the potential usefulness of CSF neurofilament (NFL) protein levels in the differential diagnosis between PD and other parkinsonian syndromes. Future multicentric, longitudinal, prospective studies with long-term follow-up and neuropathological confirmation would be useful in establishing appropriate biomarkers for PD.

Adjunctive therapy in Parkinson's disease: the role of rasagiline

Parkinson's disease is the second most common neurodegenerative disorder, currently affecting 1.5 million people in the US. In this review, we describe the diagnostic and pathological features of Parkinson's disease, as well as its clinical course. We then review pharmacologic treatments for the disease, with a particular focus on therapies adjunctive to levodopa and specifically the role of rasagiline. We review the four pivotal rasagiline trials, and discuss rasagiline and its use as adjunctive therapy for Parkinson's disease. Finally, we discuss potential side effects, drug interactions, and other practical aspects concerning the use of rasagiline in Parkinson's disease.

Diagnostic cerebrospinal fluid biomarkers for Parkinson's disease: a pathogenetically based approach

The inaccuracy of the early diagnosis of Parkinson's disease (PD) has been a major incentive for studies aimed at the identification of biomarkers. Brain-derived cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) proteins are potential biomarkers considering the major role that proteins play in PD pathogenesis. In this review, we discuss the current hypotheses about the pathogenesis of PD and identify the most promising candidate biomarkers among the CSF proteins studied so far. The list of potential markers includes proteins involved in various pathogenetic processes, such as oxidative stress and protein aggregation. This list will undoubtedly grow in the near future by application of CSF proteomics and subsequent validation of identified proteins. Probably a single biomarker will not suffice to reach high sensitivity and specificity, because PD is pathogenetically heterogeneous and shares etiological factors with other neurodegenerative diseases. Furthermore, identified candidate biomarkers will have to be thoroughly validated before they can be implemented as diagnostic aids.

Pharmacological therapy in Parkinson's disease: focus on neuroprotection

Although the number of available therapeutic approaches in Parkinson's disease (PD) is steadily increasing the search for effective neuroprotective agent is continuing. Such research is directed at influencing the key steps in the pathomechanism: the mitochondrial dysfunction, the oxidative stress, the neuroinflammatory processes and the final common apoptotic pathway. Earlier-developed symptomatic therapies were implicated to be neuroprotective, and promising novel disease modifying approaches were brought into the focus of interest. The current review presents a survey of our current knowledge relating to the pathomechanism of PD and discusses the putative neuroprotective therapy.

Neurochemical biomarkers in the differential diagnosis of movement disorders

In recent years, the neurochemical analysis of neuronal proteins in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) has become increasingly accepted for the diagnosis of neurodegenerative dementia diseases such as Alzheimer's disease and Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease. CSF surrounds the central nervous system, and in the composition of CSF proteins one finds brain-specific proteins that are prioritized from blood-derived proteins. Levels of specific CSF proteins could be very promising biomarkers for central nervous system diseases. We need the development of more easily accessible biomarkers, in the blood. In neurodegenerative diseases with and without dementia, studies on CSF and blood proteins have investigated the usefulness of biomarkers in differential diagnosis. The clinical diagnoses of Parkinson's disease, dementia with Lewy bodies, multiple system atrophy, progressive supranuclear palsy, and corticobasal degeneration still rely mainly on clinical symptoms as defined by international classification criteria. In this article, we review CSF biomarkers in these movement disorders and discuss recent published reports on the neurochemical intra vitam diagnosis of neurodegenerative disorders (including recent CSF alpha-synuclein findings).

High-performance immunoaffinity chromatography, an immunoaffinity membrane for selective removal of plasma components, and safety evaluation of the latter system

This article reviews our studies on evaluating the suitability of high-performance immunoaffinity chromatography (HPIAC), an immunoaffinity membrane (IAM) for removing unwanted plasma component, and the safety of the IAM. In an attempt to resolve the problem of amyloid deposition in dialysis patients, we used an HPIAC column, bearing anti-beta 2-microglobulin to remove specifically beta 2-MG from human plasma. The use of a membrane as an affinity ligand support was also studied. A specific antibody immobilized on the membrane was highly effective for the removal of rat immunoglobulin E and of a human serum amyloid P component passed through an extracorporeal circulation (EC) system. Biocompatibility of the specific antibody-bearing IAM was also examined. These techniques should prove useful for medical applications and may have broad applicability to the elimination of any unwanted plasma component. The IAM exerts two functions simultaneously, usual dialysis and elimination by immunoaffinity binding. The rat EC model has been applied as an evaluation system for the safety of medical devices in contact with the blood stream. Combining commonly used hemodialysis (HD) membranes with rat EC, we evaluated the elicitation of immunological responses, as well as the effect of repeated EC. The data suggest that this EC model can reproduce similar immunological responses in HD patients, and can be employed to evaluate medical devices and materials for their delayed, systemic, and repeated exposure effects. The EC system described here can reproduce human HD treatment, remove unwanted substances, and evaluate medical devices and materials for toxicological responses.

Interleukin 1 beta, interleukin 6, beta 2-microglobulin, and transforming growth factor-alpha in gingival crevicular fluid from human periodontal disease

Inflammatory mediators are central to the pathogenesis of periodontal diseases and may be used as markers in diagnosis. The aim of this study was to identify and quantify the various growth factors, apoptosis-related modifiers [soluble form of Fas (sFas) and bcl-2] and cytokines in the gingival crevicular fluid (GCF) of patients with different severities of periodontitis as compared with those of controls. GCF samples were taken from patients with periodontal disease and from controls. The concentrations of epidermal growth factor, transforming growth factor (TGF)-alpha, interleukin (IL)-1 beta, IL-6, interferon-gamma, beta 2-microglobulin (beta 2-MG), and apoptosis-related modifiers sFas and bcl-2 in the samples were determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. TGF-alpha was significantly lower in patients with periodontal disease than in the controls. In contrast, the concentrations of IL-1 beta, IL-6; and beta 2-MG were significantly higher in the group with severe periodontal disease than in the controls. The amount of total protein in the GCF was considerably higher in the disease group than the controls (p < 0.05). TGF-alpha, IL-1 beta, and beta 2-MG concentrations were associated (Spearman rank correlation, r < 0.05 for all) with clinical measures of disease severity (pocket depth) and inflammation (bleeding when probed). Apoptosis-related modifiers (sFas and bcl-2) could not be detected in any samples. These results suggest that the growth factor TGF-alpha and certain cytokines are associated with the presence of periodontal disease.

Selective removal of plasma components by high-performance immunoaffinity chromatography

Affinity chromatography employing immobilized antibody is a rapid and specific technique for isolating biologically active materials from different sources, and high-performance immunoaffinity chromatography (HPIAC) has been used to isolate antibodies and antigens for medical application. In an attempt to resolve the problem of amyloid deposition in dialysis patients, we used HPIAC to specifically remove beta2-microglobulin from human plasma. The use of a membrane as an affinity ligand support was also studied. The specific antibody immobilized on a membrane was highly effective for removal of rat immunoglobulin E passed through an extracorporeal circulation system (ECS). Then we investigated the removal of injected human serum amyloid P component from the blood of rats by means of the ECS. Biocompatibility of the specific antibody-bearing immunoaffinity membrane was also examined in terms of nonspecific binding of other plasma components. These techniques should prove useful for medical application and may have broad applicability for the elimination of any unwanted plasma component.

Interleukin (IL)-1 beta, IL-6, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, epidermal growth factor, and beta 2-microglobulin levels are elevated in gingival crevicular fluid during human orthodontic tooth movement

Bone remodeling is a complex process regulated by several mediators. Recent work has revealed that cytokines and growth factors have significant effects on bone cell metabolism. However, little information is available concerning the production of cytokines during orthodontic tooth movement in human subjects, and there is no non-invasive model for determining the production of cytokines. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to identify and quantify the various cytokines in human gingival crevicular fluid (GCF), and to investigate the changes in their levels during orthodontic tooth movement. Twelve patients (mean age, 14.4 years) were used as subjects. An upper canine of each patient having one treatment for distal movement served as the experimental tooth, whereas the contralateral and antagonistic canines were used as controls. The GCF around the experimental and the two control teeth was taken from each subject immediately before activation, and at 1, 24, and 168 hr after the initiation of tooth movement. Cytokine levels were determined by ELISAs. The concentrations of interleukin (IL)-1 beta, IL-6, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, epidermal growth factor, and beta 2-microglobulin were significantly higher in the experimental group than in the controls at 24 hr after the experiment was initiated. All the cytokines remained at baseline levels throughout the experiment for the two control groups. In contrast to cytokine alteration, the amount of total protein in the GCF exhibited a gradual increase, but no significant difference was observed between the control and experimental groups. Since all cytokines in GCF play an important role in the bone remodeling processes in vitro, the present results indicate that the changes in cytokines in GCF are associated with orthodontic tooth movement.

Transforming growth factor-alpha in human submandibular gland and saliva

A sensitive sandwich enzyme immunoassay (EIA) for transforming growth factor-alpha (TGF-alpha) utilizing a polyclonal antibody that recognizes limited epitopes of both human TGF-alpha and rat TGF-alpha in combination with a monoclonal anti-TGF-alpha IgG1 galactosidase conjugate was developed. This assay shows no cross-reactivity with human epidermal growth factor. We can quantify the TGF-alpha level in not only human TGF-alpha (detection limit: 1 pg/ml), but also rat TGF-alpha (detection limit: 10 pg/ml) by virtue of cross-reactivity. Employing this assay system, we demonstrated that TGF-alpha is present in both human submandibular glands and submandibular/sublingual saliva.

Salivary beta 2-microglobulin in NZB/WF1 mice

Unstimulated parotid and submandibular/sublingual saliva from New Zealand black/WF1 (NZB/WF1) mice as collected by microcapillary (1 microliter), and the content of beta 2-microglobulin (beta 2-MG) determined by a sandwich enzyme immunoassay. Salivary beta 2-MG contents of control C57BL/6 and NZB/WF1 mice (45 weeks of age) were 0.68 +/- 0.18 micrograms/ml and 1.42 +/- 0.21 micrograms/ml (mean +/- SD), respectively, from the parotid gland and 0.62 +/- 0.17 micrograms/ml and 1.34 +/- 0.21 microliters/ml, respectively, from the submandibular sublingual glands. However, the concentration of beta 2-MG was not increased in the NZB/WF1 mice at 5 and 20 weeks of age. Saliva from NZB/WF1 mice (45 weeks old) was fractionated by micro two-dimensional gel electrophoresis; it exhibited both qualitative and quantitative changes in protein composition in comparison to the two-dimensional at 5 weeks of age. These observations parallel those in saliva from patients with Sjögren's syndrome.

Brain beta 2-microglobulin levels are elevated in the striatum in Parkinson's disease

beta 2-Microglobulin (B2-MG) content was measured for the first time in the brain (caudate nucleus, putamen, and cerebral cortex) from control and parkinsonian patients by a highly sensitive sandwich enzyme immunoassay. The concentrations of B2-MG in dopaminergic striatal regions were significantly higher in parkinsonian patients than those in controls, whereas those in the cerebral cortex showed no significant difference between parkinsonian and control subjects. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) concentrations were also increased in the striatum, confirming our previous findings, but not in the cerebral cortex. Since TNF-alpha may induce B2-MG expression, these results suggest that an immunological response may occur in the nigrostriatal dopaminergic regions in Parkinson's disease.

Increased beta 2-microglobulin in both parotid and submandibular/sublingual saliva from patients with Sjögren's syndrome

Samples of unstimulated saliva from patients with sialoadenopathy were collected by microcapillary tube (1 microliter), and their beta 2-microglobulin (B2-MG) content determined by a sandwich enzyme immunoassay. A higher than normal (control) concentration of the globulin was present in both parotid and submandibular/sublingual saliva from the patients with Sjögren's syndrome but not in the samples from the patients with sialoadenitis or diabetes mellitus. The increase in B2-MG in saliva from patients with Sjögren's syndrome may reflect that immunolopathological events are important in the degeneration of both glands in this disease. Therefore, the determination of B2-MG in saliva may be a simple, non-invasive technique for confirming the diagnosis of Sjögren's syndrome as an autoimmune disease.

Concentrations of neopterin and biopterin in the cerebrospinal fluid of patients with Parkinson's disease

The concentrations of neopterin and biopterin in CSF of 18 younger and 10 older, control patients and of 18 patients with Parkinson's disease were measured by high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection. Both neopterin concentrations and the neopterin to biopterin ratios in CSF were lower in 50-year or younger group than in 51-year or older group. Biopterin concentrations were also decreased but not significantly in the older group. The concentrations of neopterin and biopterin in CSF of patients with Parkinson's disease were lower than those of the age-matched older control group. However, the neopterin/biopterin ratios tended to be lower but not change significantly as compared to the age-matched older control group.