Neurotrophin-3 is expressed in the posterior lobe of mouse cerebellum, but does not affect the cerebellar development

Cerebellar Patterning Defects in Mutant Mice

The cerebellar cortex is highly compartmentalized and serves as a remarkable model for pattern formation throughout the brain. In brief, the adult cerebellar cortex is subdivided into five anteroposterior units—transverse zones—and subsequently, each zone is divided into ∼20 parasagittal stripes. Zone-and-stripe pattern formation involves the interplay of two parallel developmental pathways—one for inhibitory neurons, the second for excitatory. In the inhibitory pathway, progenitor cells of the 4th ventricle generate the Purkinje cells and inhibitory interneurons. In the excitatory pathway, progenitor cells in the upper rhombic lip give rise to the external granular layer, and subsequently to the granular layer of the adult. Both the excitatory and inhibitory developmental pathways are spatially patterned and the interactions of the two generate the complex topography of the adult. This review briefly describes the cellular and molecular mechanisms that underly zone-and-stripe development with a particular focus on mutations known to interfere with normal cerebellar development and the light they cast on the mechanisms of pattern formation.

Origins, Development, and Compartmentation of the Granule Cells of the Cerebellum

Granule cells (GCs) are the most numerous cell type in the cerebellum and indeed, in the brain: at least 99% of all cerebellar neurons are granule cells. In this review article, we first consider the formation of the upper rhombic lip, from which all granule cell precursors arise, and the way by which the upper rhombic lip generates the external granular layer, a secondary germinal epithelium that serves to amplify the upper rhombic lip precursors. Next, we review the mechanisms by which postmitotic granule cells are generated in the external granular layer and migrate radially to settle in the granular layer. In addition, we review the evidence that far from being a homogeneous population, granule cells come in multiple phenotypes with distinct topographical distributions and consider ways in which the heterogeneity of granule cells might arise during development.

Smooth-muscle-specific expression of neurotrophin-3 in mouse embryonic and neonatal gastrointestinal tract

Vagal gastrointestinal (GI) afferents are essential for the regulation of eating, body weight, and digestion. However, their functional organization and the way that this develops are poorly understood. Neurotrophin-3 (NT-3) is crucial for the survival of vagal sensory neurons and is expressed in the developing GI tract, possibly contributing to their survival and to other aspects of vagal afferent development. The identification of the functions of this peripheral NT-3 thus requires a detailed understanding of the localization and timing of its expression in the developing GI tract. We have studied embryos and neonates expressing the lacZ reporter gene from the NT-3 locus and found that NT-3 is expressed predominantly in the smooth muscle of the outer GI wall of the stomach, intestines, and associated blood vessels and in the stomach lamina propria and esophageal epithelium. NT-3 expression has been detected in the mesenchyme of the GI wall by embryonic day 12.5 (E12.5) and becomes restricted to smooth muscle and lamina propria by E15.5, whereas its expression in blood vessels and esophageal epithelium is first observed at E15.5. Expression in most tissues is maintained at least until postnatal day 4. The lack of colocalization of beta-galactosidase and markers for myenteric ganglion cell types suggests that NT-3 is not expressed in these ganglia. Therefore, NT-3 expression in the GI tract is largely restricted to smooth muscle at ages when vagal axons grow into the GI tract, and when vagal mechanoreceptors form in smooth muscle, consistent with its role in these processes and in vagal sensory neuron survival.

Barhl1 regulates migration and survival of cerebellar granule cells by controlling expression of the neurotrophin-3 gene

The neurons generated at the germinal rhombic lip undergo long distance migration along divergent pathways to settle in widely dispersed locations within the hindbrain, giving rise to cerebellar granule cells and precerebellar nuclei. Neurotrophin-3 (NT-3) signaling has been shown to be required for proper migration and survival of cerebellar granule cells. The molecular bases that govern NT-3 expression within the cerebellum, however, remain unknown at present. Here we report that, during early mouse neurogenesis, the Barhl1 homeobox gene is highly expressed by the rhombic lip and rhombic lip-derived migratory neurons. Its expression is later restricted to cerebellar granule cells and precerebellar neurons extending mossy fibers, two groups of neurons that synaptically connect in the adult cerebellar system. Loss of Barhl1 function causes cerebellar phenotypes with a striking similarity to those of NT-3 conditional null mice, which include attenuated cerebellar foliation as well as defective radial migration and increased apoptotic death of granule cells. Correlating with these defects, we find that NT-3 expression is dramatically downregulated in granule cells of the posterior lobe of Barhl1(-)/- cerebella. Moreover, in the precerebellar system of Barhl1(-/-) mice, all five nuclei that project mossy fibers fail to form correctly because of aberrant neuronal migration and elevated apoptosis. These results suggest that Barhl1 plays an essential role in the migration and survival of cerebellar granule cells and precerebellar neurons and functionally link Barhl1 to the NT-3 signaling pathway during cerebellar development.

Climbing fiber development: do neurotrophins have a part to play?

The climbing fiber input to the cerebellum is crucial for its normal function but those factors which control the development of this precisely organized pathway are not fully elucidated. The neurotrophins are a family of peptides, which have many roles during development of the nervous system, including the cerebellum. Since the cerebellum and inferior olive express neurotrophins and their receptors, we propose that neurotrophins are involved in the regulation of climbing fiber development. Here we review the temporo-spatial expression of neurotrophins and their receptors at key ages during climbing fiber development and then examine evidence linking neurotrophins to climbing fiber development, including some of the intracellular pathways involved. During prenatal development the expression of neurotrophins in the hindbrain coupled with their function in neurogenesis and migration, is consistent with a role of NT3 in inferior olivary genesis. Subsequently, cerebellar expression of two neurotrophins, NT3 and NT4, is concurrent with olivary receptor expression and the time of olivary axonal outgrowth and this continues postnatally during early climbing fiber synaptogenesis on Purkinje cells. The expression-pattern of neurotrophins changes with age, with falling NGF, NT3 and NT4 but increasing granule cell BDNF. Importantly, olivary expression of neurotrophin receptors, and therefore climbing fiber responsiveness to neurotrophins, falls specifically during maturation of the climbing fiber-Purkinje cell synapse. The function of BDNF is less certain, but experimental studies indicate that it has a role in climbing fiber innervation of Purkinje cells, particularly synaptogenesis and synaptic plasticity. Its importance is highlighted by the overlap of BDNF signalling with several cellular pathways, which regulate climbing fiber maturation. From the data presented, we propose not only that neurotrophins are involved in climbing fiber development, but also that several act in a specific temporal order.

TrkB receptor signaling is required for establishment of GABAergic synapses in the cerebellum

Neurotrophins are essential to the normal development and maintenance of the nervous system. Neurotrophin signaling is mediated by Trk family tyrosine kinases such as TrkA, TrkB and TrkC, as well as by the pan-neurotrophin receptor p75NTR. Here we have deleted the trkB gene in cerebellar precursors by Wnt1-driven Cre--mediated recombination to study the function of the TrkB in the cerebellum. Despite the absence of TrkB, the mature cerebellum of mutant mice appears similar to that of wild type, with all types of cell present in normal numbers and positions. Granule and Purkinje cell dendrites appear normal and the former have typical numbers of excitatory synapses. By contrast, inhibitory interneurons are strongly affected: although present in normal numbers, they express reduced amounts of GABAergic markers and develop reduced numbers of GABAergic boutons and synaptic specializations. Thus, TrkB is essential to the development of GABAergic neurons and regulates synapse formation in addition to its role in the development of axon terminals.

Increase in neurotrophin-3 expression followed by Purkinje cell degeneration in the adult rat cerebellum after spinal cord transection

Changes in brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and neurotrophin-3 (NT-3) contents following thoracic spinal cord transection were investigated in the cerebral cortex, hippocampus, and cerebellum of rats. The NT-3 content became significantly elevated at 3 days after transection only in the cerebellum and gradually declined to the control level by 6 days after the injury, remaining unchanged in the cerebral cortex and hippocampus. No significant change in the BDNF content was observed in any of the regions tested. Immunohistochemical analysis showed that the labeling indicating NT-3-like immunoreactivity was intensified in both cerebellar granule and Purkinje cells 3 days after the injury. The number of Purkinje cells with aggregation of chromatin around the nuclear membrane and swelling of the cytoplasm and/or organelles gradually increased with time starting 4 days after the injury, demonstrating morphological changes indicative of necrosis. However, no abnormal morphology was found in cerebellar granule cells at any time examined. We suggest that it is reasonable that increased NT-3 stimulated the death of Purkinje cells, because 1) the degeneration was necrosis, which is known to be accelerated by neurotrophins under certain pathological conditions, and 2) the increase in NT-3 occurred prior to Purkinje cell degeneration. Therefore, our present results may imply that spinal cord injury-induced NT-3 accelerates injury rather than alleviates degeneration of Purkinje cells.

The effects of neurotrophin-3 and brain-derived neurotrophic factor on cerebellar granule cell movement and neurite extension in vitro

Migration of the granule cells is a major stage of cerebellar maturation. Granule cells express neurotrophins and their receptors; however, their role in cell migration has not been defined. In this study we investigated the effects of exogenous neurotrophins on the movement and neurite extension of granule cells from glial-free cerebellar cell reaggregates in vitro. Our results provide direct evidence that neurotrophin-3 and brain-derived neurotrophic factor differentially affect the granule cells. Neurotrophin-3 significantly affected granule cell movements by decreasing the migration index (the ratio of the number of cells that moved further than half the neurite length) and the speed of cell soma movement, but did not affect neurite length or growth cone migration. In contrast, brain-derived neurotrophic factor and neurotrophin-4 acted on growing neurites and growth cones by significantly increasing neurite length and the speed of growth cone migration, but had no effect either on the migration index or on the speed of the cell soma movement. The results suggest that neurotrophins differentially affect neurite extension and the movements of cerebellar granule cells.

Neurotrophin-3 controls proliferation of granular precursors as well as survival of mature granule neurons in the developing rat cerebellum

Levels of neurotrophin-3 markedly decrease in the rat cerebellum after the first 10 days of life, suggesting an importance during early development. To further examine the effect of neurotrophin-3 on the developing cerebellum, we injected a monoclonal antibody against neurotrophin-3 into the lateral ventricle of 7.5-day-old rats. The resultant depletion of neurotrophin-3 caused a significant decrease in cerebellar wet weights noted at 7 and 23 days thereafter. Other changes noted 48 h after injection of monoclonal antibodies against neurotrophin-3 included reduced incorporation of bromode-oxyuridine into granule neurons in the external germinal layer, an elevated density of atrophic neurons that had just migrated under the Purkinje cell layer, and an increased number of apoptotic neurons in the internal granule cell layer. These changes were limited to the central lobe. The concentration of neurotrophin-3 protein in the posterior region, including the central lobe, was about four- and threefold higher than that in the anterior region of the cerebellum of 9.5- and 30-day-old rats, respectively. Immunocytochemical examination showed higher amounts of neurotrophin-3 protein in the central lobe than in the anterior lobe. Our results provide evidence that neurotrophin-3 regulates the proliferation of granule precursors and supports the survival of mature granule neurons in restricted lobules, suggesting an involvement in limited regions at a specific stage in development of the rat cerebellum.

Expression of neurotrophin-3 in the mouse forebrain: insights from a targeted LacZ reporter

To obtain insights into the expression of neurotrophin-3 (NT-3) in the mouse, we have utilized mice in which the Escherichia coli lacZ gene is integrated into the neurotrophin-3 locus (NT-3(lacZneo), Fariñas et al. [1994] Nature 369:658-661). In this mouse strain, beta-galactosidase production is under control of the NT-3 promoter in its normal chromosomal environment, and histochemical measurement of beta-galactosidase provides a simple, sensitive method to determine which cells express NT-3. Our data correlate well with previous in situ mRNA and immunocytochemical studies reporting the localization of NT-3. For example, in adult NT-3(lacZneo)/+ mice, beta-galactosidase is expressed in high amounts in limbic areas of the cortex (cingulate, retrosplenial, piriform, and entorhinal), in the visual cortex, in the hippocampal formation (dentate granule cells, CA2 cells, fasciola cinereum, induseum griseum, tenia tecta, presubiculum, and parasubiculum), and in the septum (septohippocampal nucleus and lateral dorsal septum). In contrast with other studies, our results suggest more extensive expression of NT-3 in adult and aged mouse brains with cortical expression apparent at 4.5 months. To further define the cell populations expressing NT-3 in adult mice, we have combined immunocytochemistry with histochemical staining and found that beta-galactosidase is coexpressed with a neuronal marker (NeuN) and with parvalbumin and neuropeptides, markers for GABAergic interneurons. Our studies of embryonic beta-galactosidase expression in NT-3(lacZneo)/+ mice suggest sites of NT-3 expression not previously described, including embryonic piriform cortical cells and dentate granule cell precursors.

Expression of neurotrophins and neurotrophin receptors in the cerebellum of mutant weaver and lurcher mice

To test the hypothesis whether a failure to express neurotrophins or a neurotrophin receptor might underlie the pathology observed in mutant mice with degeneration of regionally distinct subpopulations of neurons, the expression of BDNF, NT-3, TrkB, TrkC and synaptophysin mRNA was examined in the cerebellum of mutant lurcher (lc/+) and weaver (wv/+)/(wv/wv) mice. To identify the expression patterns of individual neurons, we used in situ hybridization with digoxigenin labeled ribonucleotide probes. RT-PCR of cerebellar mRNA for BDNF, NT-3, TrkB and TrkC (GAPDH as internal standard) was performed in parallel. Although especially in homozygous (wv/wv) weaver mice the normal anatomical order and number of the cerebellar neurons is grossly disturbed, residual Purkinje and granule neurons of both mutants displayed a normal expression pattern of the neurotrophins examined. Thus, the affected animals showed no significant signal decrease compared to healthy littermates or C3H mice. Our results suggest that the loss of specific neuron populations in the cerebellum of either mutant occurs via mechanisms either independent or downstream of the neurotrophins examined in this study.

Novel receptor protein tyrosine phosphatase (RPTPrho) and acidic fibroblast growth factor (FGF-1) transcripts delineate a rostrocaudal boundary in the granule cell layer of the murine cerebellar cortex

We have identified a novel receptor-like protein tyrosine phosphatase (RPTPrho) transcript whose expression in the cerebellar cortex is restricted to the granule cell layer of lobules 1-6. Acidic fibroblast growth factor (FGF-1) mRNA follows a similar cerebellar expression pattern. Together, the two markers define a sharp boundary in lobule 6, slightly caudal to the primary fissure. Anterior and posterior compartments became discernible only during postnatal weeks two and six, for RPTPrho and FGF-1, respectively. A rostrocaudal boundary in lobule 6 of the murine cerebellar cortex has also been identified morphologically by the effects of the meander tail mutation. The position of the RPTPrho and FGF-1 boundary on the rostrocaudal axis of the cerebellar cortex was close to, but not coincident with, the caudal extent of the disorganized anterior lobe of meander tail and the rostral extent of Otx-2 expression. The restricted pattern of FGF-1 and RPTPrho implies that these molecules may have specific signaling roles in the tyrosine phosphorylation/dephosphorylation pathway in the anterior compartment of the adult cerebellar cortex.