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Meng X, Okanda M, Kanakogi Y, Uragami M, Yamamoto H, Moriguchi Y. Gender stereotypes regarding power and niceness in Japanese children. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2024; 11:230863. [PMID: 39050713 PMCID: PMC11265890 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.230863] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2023] [Accepted: 05/20/2024] [Indexed: 07/27/2024]
Abstract
Belief in gendered social power imbalance (i.e. males are more powerful than females) leads to undesirable gender disparities, but little is known about the developmental origins of this belief, especially in Eastern cultures. We investigated the development onset of this belief by focusing on 4-7-year-old Japanese children while considering another belief (females are nicer than males) for comparison. In the dyadic context tasks, children saw pairs of animated characters depicting powerful-powerless or kind-unkind postures and judged the characters' gender (boy or girl). Results suggested both 'nice = female' and 'powerful = female' gender stereotypes in children. In the collective context tasks, children were presented with stories in occupational contexts, including multiple unspecified people and verbal cues, describing more explicitly the powerful and nice traits of the protagonists. The results replicated the 'nice = female' gender stereotype. Moreover, early 'powerful = male' gender stereotypes were seen in 6-year-old boys but not among girls in general. These findings demonstrate that Japanese children's beliefs regarding gender differences in power vary depending on the context in which male-female interactions are presented. Additionally, the study reveals that signs of the 'powerful = male' social power gender stereotype emerge around the age of 6.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xianwei Meng
- Graduate School of Informatics, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Aichi, Japan
| | - Mako Okanda
- Graduate School of Psychology, Otemon Gakuin University, Ibaraki, Osaka, Japan
| | - Yasuhiro Kanakogi
- Graduate School of Human Sciences, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka, Japan
| | - Moe Uragami
- Department of Human Sciences, Sugiyama Jogakuen University, Nissin, Aichi, Japan
| | - Hiroki Yamamoto
- Graduate School of Human Sciences, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka, Japan
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, USA
- Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yusuke Moriguchi
- Graduate School of Letters, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Kyoto, Japan
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Iacoviello V, Valsecchi G, Vétois M, Falomir-Pichastor JM. Reducing the gender gap on adolescents' interest in study fields: The impact of perceived changes in ingroup gender norms and gender prototypicality. SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY OF EDUCATION 2024; 27:1043-1063. [PMID: 39070575 PMCID: PMC11271416 DOI: 10.1007/s11218-024-09909-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2022] [Accepted: 03/04/2024] [Indexed: 07/30/2024]
Abstract
Despite some progress towards gender equality in Western societies, traditional gender norms still shape career choices, perpetuating a gender gap where girls are more likely to pursue traditionally feminine fields like healthcare, elementary education, and domestic roles (HEED), while boys are drawn to masculine domains such as science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). This research investigates whether, and under which conditions, the perception that gender norms are progressively changing towards less gender dichotomy can reduce this gender gap in academic fields. We recruited a sample of 642 high-school students (394 women and 248 men), and experimentally manipulated both the salience of changes in gender norm (stability vs change) and participants' gender prototypicality. The main dependent variable was participants' interest in stereotypically feminine (HEED) and masculine (STEM) academic fields. The results indicated a slight decrease in the gender gap for stereotypically feminine fields (HEED) among participants who saw themselves as typical members of their gender group, but no significant change was observed for stereotypically masculine fields (STEM). These findings suggest that shifting perceptions of gender norms may have a limited effect on modifying traditional educational and career choices, underscoring the resilience of entrenched gender stereotypes. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s11218-024-09909-z.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vincenzo Iacoviello
- FPSE, Université de Genève, Uni Mail, Boulevard du Pont d’Arve 40, 1205 Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Giulia Valsecchi
- FPSE, Université de Genève, Uni Mail, Boulevard du Pont d’Arve 40, 1205 Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Matthieu Vétois
- FPSE, Université de Genève, Uni Mail, Boulevard du Pont d’Arve 40, 1205 Geneva, Switzerland
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Ryan MK, Morgenroth T. Why We Should Stop Trying to Fix Women: How Context Shapes and Constrains Women's Career Trajectories. Annu Rev Psychol 2024; 75:555-572. [PMID: 38236650 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-psych-032620-030938] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2024]
Abstract
In this review we examine two classes of interventions designed to achieve workplace gender equality: (a) those designed to boost motivations and ambition, such as those that aim to attract more women into roles where they are underrepresented; and (b) those that try to provide women with needed abilities to achieve these positions. While such initiatives are generally well meaning, they tend to be based upon (and reinforce) stereotypes of what women lack. Such a deficit model leads to interventions that attempt to "fix" women rather than address the structural factors that are the root of gender inequalities. We provide a critical appraisal of the literature to establish an evidence base for why fixing women is unlikely to be successful. As an alternative, we focus on understanding how organizational context and culture maintain these inequalities by looking at how they shape and constrain (a) women's motivations and ambitions, and (b) the expression and interpretation of their skills and attributes. In doing so, we seek to shift the interventional focus from women themselves to the systems and structures in which they are embedded.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle K Ryan
- Global Institute for Women's Leadership, The Australian National University, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, Australia;
- Faculty of Economics and Business, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Thekla Morgenroth
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA
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Percival V, Thoms OT, Oppenheim B, Rowlands D, Chisadza C, Fewer S, Yamey G, Alexander AC, Allaham CL, Causevic S, Daudelin F, Gloppen S, Guha-Sapir D, Hadaf M, Henderson S, Hoffman SJ, Langer A, Lebbos TJ, Leomil L, Lyytikäinen M, Malhotra A, Mkandawire P, Norris HA, Ottersen OP, Phillips J, Rawet S, Salikova A, Shekh Mohamed I, Zazai G, Halonen T, Kyobutungi C, Bhutta ZA, Friberg P. The Lancet Commission on peaceful societies through health equity and gender equality. Lancet 2023; 402:1661-1722. [PMID: 37689077 DOI: 10.1016/s0140-6736(23)01348-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2022] [Revised: 03/01/2023] [Accepted: 06/26/2023] [Indexed: 09/11/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Valerie Percival
- Norman Paterson School of International Affairs, Carleton University, Ottawa, ON, Canada; The Wilson Center, Washington DC, USA.
| | - Oskar T Thoms
- Department of Political Science, University of Toronto, Mississauga, ON, Canada
| | - Ben Oppenheim
- Ginkgo Bioworks, Boston, MA, USA; New York University Center on International Cooperation, New York, NY, USA
| | - Dane Rowlands
- Norman Paterson School of International Affairs, Carleton University, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Carolyn Chisadza
- Department of Economics, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Sara Fewer
- Department of Global Public Health, Stockholm, Sweden; Swedish Institute for Global Health Transformation (SIGHT), Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Gavin Yamey
- Center for Policy Impact in Global Health, Duke Global Health Institute, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Amy C Alexander
- Quality of Government Institute, Department of Political Science, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Chloe L Allaham
- Norman Paterson School of International Affairs, Carleton University, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Sara Causevic
- Department of Global Public Health, Stockholm, Sweden; Swedish Institute for Global Health Transformation (SIGHT), Stockholm, Sweden; Department of Public Health Sciences, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - François Daudelin
- Department of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Siri Gloppen
- University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway; LawTransform, CMI-UiB Centre on Law and Social Transformation, Bergen, Norway
| | - Debarati Guha-Sapir
- Institute of Health and Society, UC Louvain, Brussels, Belgium; Johns Hopkins Center for Humanitarian Health, Department of International Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Maseh Hadaf
- Norman Paterson School of International Affairs, Carleton University, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Samuel Henderson
- Department of Political Science, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | | | - Ana Langer
- Department of Global Health and Population, Harvard T H Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Toni Joe Lebbos
- School of Public Policy and Administration, Carleton University, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Luiz Leomil
- Department of Political Science, Carleton University, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | | | - Anju Malhotra
- Center for Women's Health and Gender Equality, Department of International Health, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Paul Mkandawire
- Human Rights and Social Justice Program, Carleton University, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Holly A Norris
- Norman Paterson School of International Affairs, Carleton University, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Ole Petter Ottersen
- Office of the President, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden; University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Jason Phillips
- Norman Paterson School of International Affairs, Carleton University, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Sigrún Rawet
- Department for Multilateral Development Banks, Sustainability and Climate, Ministry for Foreign Affairs, Stockholm, Sweden
| | | | - Idil Shekh Mohamed
- Swedish Institute for Global Health Transformation (SIGHT), Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Ghazal Zazai
- Norman Paterson School of International Affairs, Carleton University, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | | | | | - Zulfiqar A Bhutta
- Department of Nutritional Sciences, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada; Dalla Lana School of Public Health, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada; Centre of Excellence in Women and Child Health, Aga Khan University, Karachi, Pakistan; The Institute for Global Health and Development, Aga Khan University, Karachi, Pakistan; SickKids Centre for Global Child Health, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Peter Friberg
- Swedish Institute for Global Health Transformation (SIGHT), Stockholm, Sweden; School of Public Health and Community Medicine, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
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Szekeres H, Halperin E, Saguy T. The mother of violations: Motherhood as the primary expectation of women. BRITISH JOURNAL OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2023; 62:1875-1896. [PMID: 37329215 DOI: 10.1111/bjso.12661] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2023] [Accepted: 05/08/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Recent conservative political rhetoric support women having careers but emphasize that this should not be an obstacle to having children. We propose that this sentiment reflects the hierarchy of gender norms in today's society whereby motherhood is the ultimate role that women are expected to fulfil and denying such role evokes social penalties, above and beyond other prescribed gender norms. Across five experiments (N = 738), we predicted and found that voluntarily childless women elicit more negative reactions than mothers, and importantly, also more than women violating other gender norms in the realm of occupation (Study 1), power (Study 2) or sexual orientation (Study 3). We demonstrate that these patterns cannot be explained merely by a perceived lack of communal qualities of the non-mothers (Study 4) and also show that involuntary childless women do not receive the same negativity (Study 5). We discuss this, often neglected, gender bias and its resistance to social change.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanna Szekeres
- Department of Social Psychology, Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Eran Halperin
- Department of Psychology, Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel
- Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
| | - Tamar Saguy
- School of Psychology, Reichman University, Herzliya, Israel
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Xiao VL, Lowery BS, Stillwell A. Gender Backlash and the Moderating Role of Shared Racial Group Membership. PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY BULLETIN 2023; 49:554-570. [PMID: 35184631 DOI: 10.1177/01461672221074543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Research suggests that White women often experience more gender backlash than women of color in response to expressions of agency. We consider whether this differential in backlash is driven by the match or mismatch of the race of both perceivers and targets. Much of the existing work in this space examines the perspective of White perceivers, which might underestimate racial minority women's susceptibility to backlash if backlash occurs primarily in same-race interactions. We examine how the racial group memberships of targets and perceivers jointly affect backlash against gender-norm violating women. In analyses of Dr. Christine Blasey-Ford's accusations of sexual assault against Brett Kavanaugh and Anita Hill's accusations against Clarence Thomas during their respective U.S. Supreme Court confirmation hearings, an archival analysis of the 2016 U.S. presidential election, and two experiments, we find that perceivers of different races tend to express more backlash toward racial in-group than out-group women.
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Mitchell RL, Matusik JG, Johnson RE. Backlashes or boosts? The role of warmth and gender in relational uncertainty reductions. HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT 2023. [DOI: 10.1002/hrm.22166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/03/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca L. Mitchell
- Leeds School of Business University of Colorado – Boulder Boulder Colorado USA
| | - James G. Matusik
- Terry College of Business University of Georgia Athens Georgia USA
| | - Russell E. Johnson
- Eli Broad College of Business Michigan State University East Lansing Michigan USA
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Krings F, Manoharan S, Mendes de Oliveira A. Backlash for high self‐promotion at hiring depends on candidates' gender and age. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SELECTION AND ASSESSMENT 2022. [DOI: 10.1111/ijsa.12410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Franciska Krings
- Department of Organizational Behavior University of Lausanne Lausanne Vaud Switzerland
| | - Saranya Manoharan
- Department of Organizational Behavior University of Lausanne Lausanne Vaud Switzerland
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Vess M, Maffly-Kipp J. Parenting Practices and Authenticity in Mothers and Fathers. SEX ROLES 2022; 87:487-497. [PMID: 36373020 PMCID: PMC9638501 DOI: 10.1007/s11199-022-01330-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
We explored the relationship between parenting practices and the experience of subjective authenticity in the parenting role. Based on work showing that authenticity responds to violations of broad social expectations, we predicted that mothers would feel more authentic than fathers. We also predicted, however, that parenting practices that conflicted with broad gender norms would differentially predict authenticity for mothers and fathers. We tested this prediction in a single study of U.S. parents recruited from an internet research panel service (N = 529). Parents completed online measures of authenticity and parenting practices on three separate occasions. We assessed the within-person association between parenting practices and parent-role authenticity. Authoritarian parenting practices negatively predicted parent-role authenticity for mothers, whereas permissive practices negatively predicted parent-role authenticity for fathers. Authoritative practices positively predicted authenticity regardless of parent gender, and, overall, women felt more authentic in the parenting role than men. These findings contribute to emerging theoretical perspectives on authenticity and gender role congruence and highlight how different parenting practices relate to the well-being of mothers and fathers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew Vess
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Texas A&M University, 4235 TAMU, College Station, TX 77840 USA
| | - Joseph Maffly-Kipp
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Texas A&M University, 4235 TAMU, College Station, TX 77840 USA
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Webster JR, Adams GA. Stifled from the start: biased allocation of developmental opportunities and the underrepresentation of lesbian women and gay men in leadership. EQUALITY, DIVERSITY AND INCLUSION: AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL 2022. [DOI: 10.1108/edi-05-2022-0120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
PurposeThe goal of this study was to help explain the underrepresentation of lesbian women and gay men (LG) in senior leadership positions by examining bias in the allocation of developmental opportunities (sponsorship/coaching and challenging work assignments). It further sought to test stigma-by-association as one reason for the biased allocation of developmental opportunities.Design/methodology/approachAn online experimental vignette study (N = 273) using a 2 (target gender: male vs female) by 2 (sexual orientation: LG vs heterosexual) design was conducted.FindingsLG workers were less likely to be allocated developmental opportunities than heterosexual workers overall and relative to their same-sex heterosexual counterparts. Further, lesbian women were least likely to be allocated developmental opportunities. These effects also operated indirectly via participants concerns about stigma-by-association.Originality/valueSexual orientation and gender identity minority workers remain underrepresented in senior leadership positions and oftentimes despite having better objective qualifications. Research has begun examining bias in leader selection. This study, however, directs attention to the biased allocation of developmental opportunities which make one competitive for senior leadership positions and occur prior to leader selection. In doing so, the authors provide a baseline understanding of an important reason why LG might be underrepresented in leadership positions.
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Mishra S, Kray LJ. The mitigating effect of desiring status on social backlash against ambitious women. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2022.104355] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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12
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Bareket O, Ein-Gar D, Kogut T. I will help you survive but not thrive: Helping decisions in situations that empower women. GROUP PROCESSES & INTERGROUP RELATIONS 2022. [DOI: 10.1177/13684302221108437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
This research examines gender-based helping behavior from a social dominance perspective. We focused on the interplay between the gender of a prospective donor and the gender of the recipient in shaping donation decisions in contexts that either empower recipients or not. In two studies ( N = 866), male (but not female) donors chose to donate less often (Study 2) and to give lower amounts (Studies 1–2) to women in need than to men when donations were made in a potentially empowering context – a business context (e.g., donating to a person whose shop burned down), than in a nonempowering context – a domestic context (e.g., donating to a person whose house burned down). Lack of empathy for the female recipient among men partially mediated this gender–donation bias effect (Study 2). These findings suggest that men are less likely to help women in situations that empower women and challenge the existing gender hierarchy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Orly Bareket
- Tel Aviv University, Israel
- Princeton University, USA
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Sullivan J, Ciociolo A, Moss-Racusin CA. Establishing the content of gender stereotypes across development. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0263217. [PMID: 35819934 PMCID: PMC9275684 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0263217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2020] [Accepted: 01/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Gender stereotypes shape individuals’ behaviors, expectations, and perceptions of others. However, little is known about the content of gender stereotypes about people of different ages (e.g., do gender stereotypes about 1-year-olds differ from those about older individuals?). In our pre-registered study, 4,598 adults rated either the typicality of characteristics (to assess descriptive stereotypes), or the desirability of characteristics (to assess prescriptive and proscriptive stereotypes) for targets who differed in gender and age. Between-subjects, we manipulated target gender (boy/man vs. girl/woman) and target age (1, 4, 7, 10, 13, 16, or 35). From this, we generated a normed list of descriptive, prescriptive, and proscriptive gender-stereotyped characteristics about people across the early developmental timespan. We make this archive, as well as our raw data, available to other researchers. We also present preliminary findings, demonstrating that some characteristics are consistently ungendered (e.g., challenges authority), others are gender-stereotypic across the early developmental timespan (e.g., males from age 1 to 35 tend to be dirty), and still others change over development (e.g., girls should be submissive, but only around age 10). Implications for gender stereotyping theory—as well as targets of gender stereotyping, across the lifespan—are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Sullivan
- Department of Psychology, Skidmore College, Saratoga Springs, New York, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Angela Ciociolo
- Angela Ciociolo Marketing and Design, Grafton, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Corinne A. Moss-Racusin
- Department of Psychology, Skidmore College, Saratoga Springs, New York, United States of America
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Jiménez-Moya G, Carvacho H, Álvarez B, Contreras C, González R. Is Support for Feminism Enough for Change? How Sexism and Gender Stereotypes Might Hinder Gender Justice. Front Psychol 2022; 13:912941. [PMID: 35903724 PMCID: PMC9315204 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.912941] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2022] [Accepted: 06/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Even though formal processes (i.e., gender quotes) are necessary to achieve gender justice, attitudinal changes (i.e., support of egalitarian social norms) are also essential. The endorsement of sexism and gender stereotypes perpetuate inequality on a daily basis, and can be seen as barriers that prevent societies from reaching social justice. Therefore, changing sexist social norms can be understood as a fundamental step in accomplishing gender justice. With the aim of studying Chileans’ sexist norms, we conducted a survey with a representative sample (N = 490) exploring levels of sexism and gender stereotypes, as well as support for the feminist movement. Using Latent Profile Analysis, we identified four groups of citizens: (1) a first group that shows high levels of sexism and low support for the feminist movement (9%); (2) a second group, with low levels of sexism and high support for the feminist movement (20%); (3) a third group with high levels of sexism and high support for the feminist movement (65%); and (4) a fourth group with mid-levels of sexism and support of the feminist movement (6%). We called these groups the Sexist, Feminist, Inconsistent, and Moderate Group, respectively. The four groups showed similar high endorsement of gender stereotypes. These results are twofold. First, they hint that although nowadays gender equality seems to be generally accepted, this coexists with a high prevalence of sexist social norms, represented by the inconsistent group being the most prevalent. Second, gender stereotypes are still deeply rooted in Chilean culture, surprisingly even among feminist citizens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gloria Jiménez-Moya
- Escuela de Psicología, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
- *Correspondence: Gloria Jiménez-Moya,
| | - Héctor Carvacho
- Escuela de Psicología, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Belén Álvarez
- School of Psychology, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Camila Contreras
- Escuela de Psicología, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Roberto González
- Escuela de Psicología, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
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15
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Bosson JK, Wilkerson M, Kosakowska-Berezecka N, Jurek P, Olech M. Harder Won and Easier Lost? Testing the Double Standard in Gender Rules in 62 Countries. SEX ROLES 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s11199-022-01297-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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16
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McPherson E, Banchefsky S, Park B. Trait Stereotypes of Scientists as Analytical and Cold Align With Perceptions of Men More Than Women on Both Implicit and Explicit Measures. SOCIAL COGNITION 2022. [DOI: 10.1521/soco.2022.40.3.228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Previous work using implicit tasks has demonstrated associations at a categorical level between men and science-related words (e.g., chemistry, physics, engineering). The current research explores trait attributes, examining the overlap in trait stereotypes of scientists with trait stereotypes of men and women, using both implicit and explicit stereotyping measures. Study 1 identified traits stereotypically associated with scientists along the analytic and cold dimensions, and counterstereotypic traits on unquestioning and warm dimensions. Study 2 demonstrated strong gender-scientist stereotypes on both explicit and implicit measures such that men were seen as more analytic and cold and less unquestioning and warm than women. Although robust effects were observed on both types of measures, their correlation was weak and nonsignificant. The misfit between trait perceptions of scientists and women, whether measured implicitly or explicitly, suggests trait stereotypes help maintain the gender imbalance in physical science fields.
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17
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Toward Gender Equality in Education—Teachers’ Beliefs about Gender and Math. EDUCATION SCIENCES 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/educsci12060373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/10/2022]
Abstract
Math has a strong gender-related image, even among teachers. As teachers hold beliefs about their work, their role, their subject, and their students, they shape girls’ and boys’ mathematical beliefs and attitudes. Research during the past 20 years has shown that teachers’ gender beliefs about mathematics significantly favor boys, thereby reinforcing girls’ low math ability self-concept. Still, there is a lack of studies that examine teachers’ gender-related beliefs based on their underlying assumptions. Our study provides the first empirical evidence of the relationship between general gender stereotypes and math stereotypes. To this end, we used partial correlation and MANCOVA to analyze data from an online survey in 2019/2020 conducted in Switzerland (195 women, 80 men) as part of a cross-cultural comparison study. We therefore created a differentiated profile of prospective teachers by examining their beliefs about their self-image, their image of men and women in society, their essentialist and gender role ideology beliefs, and their math stereotypes. Then, we linked prospective teachers’ beliefs about gender (based on 48 characteristics) to their beliefs about mathematics and about girls’ and boys’ competencies in math. The extensive analysis provides knowledge about prospective teachers and is particularly important for teacher education.
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18
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Lolayekar AP, Desouza S, Mukhopadhyay P. Crimes Against Women in India: A District-Level Analysis (1991-2011). JOURNAL OF INTERPERSONAL VIOLENCE 2022; 37:NP7289-NP7314. [PMID: 33107379 DOI: 10.1177/0886260520967147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Crimes against women (CAW) in India have been rising despite faster economic growth, higher education attainment, and increasing numbers of women in the economic sphere. This article explores the reasons for the incidence of reported CAW in India. We study five CAW (rape, kidnapping, cruelty, dowry deaths, and molestation), across 35 states and union territories, 594 districts, over three decades (1991-2011). We use panel fixed-effects regression models to explain crime. Our results confirm the importance of female literacy rates, female paid workforce participation, and female-male ratio in understanding crime. We find that these commonly-used socioeconomic variables have nonlinear effects on CAW. Our findings improve upon earlier results that have not explored either spatial distribution or nonlinearity in India. These findings could have significant implications for the policies aiming to reduce CAW.
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A critical review and theorization of workplace backlash: Looking back and moving forward through the lens of social dominance theory. HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT REVIEW 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.hrmr.2022.100900] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Kim KY, Shen W, Evans R, Mu F. Granting Leadership to Asian Americans: the Activation of Ideal Leader and Ideal Follower Traits on Observers' Leadership Perceptions. JOURNAL OF BUSINESS AND PSYCHOLOGY 2022; 37:1157-1180. [PMID: 35233148 PMCID: PMC8872890 DOI: 10.1007/s10869-022-09794-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/30/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Despite demonstrating high levels of academic and professional competence, Asians are underrepresented in leadership roles in North America. The limited research on this topic has found that Asian Americans are perceived by others as poorer leaders than White Americans due to perceptions that Asians lack the ideal traits of a Western leader (i.e., agentic) relative to White Americans. However, we contend that, in addition to poorly activating ideal leader traits, Asian Americans may strongly activate ideal follower traits (e.g., industrious and reliable), and being seen as a good follower may pigeonhole Asian Americans in non-managerial roles. Across 4 studies, our findings generally supported our arguments regarding the activation of ideal follower traits and lack of activation of ideal leader traits for Asian American workers. However, compared to their majority group counterparts, we found some unexpected evidence for a more favorable view of Asian Americans as leaders, which was primarily driven by the greater activation of ideal follower traits (i.e., industry and good citizen) among Asian American workers. Yet, we uncover an important boundary condition in that these "good follower" advantages did not accrue when observers experienced threat-revealing how the benefits of so-called positive stereotypes of Asian American workers are context dependent. SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10869-022-09794-3.
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Affiliation(s)
- K. Yourie Kim
- Department of Psychology, University of Waterloo, 200 University Avenue West, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1 Canada
| | - Winny Shen
- Schulich School of Business, York University, 111 Ian Macdonald Boulevard, Toronto, ON M3J 1P3 Canada
| | - Rochelle Evans
- Department of Psychology, University of Waterloo, 200 University Avenue West, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1 Canada
| | - Frank Mu
- Department of Psychology, University of Waterloo, 200 University Avenue West, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1 Canada
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21
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Merluzzi J, Phillips DJ. Early Career Leadership Advancement: Evidence of Incongruity Penalties toward Young, Single Women Professionals. ORGANIZATION STUDIES 2022. [DOI: 10.1177/01708406221081619] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
We advance gender inequality scholarship by drawing attention to a growing but understudied group: young, single women professionals (without children). Our thesis is that for women, singlehood is deemed incongruent with role expectations of leadership – both with masculine expectations of men as “ideal leaders”, but also compared to feminine expectations of women leaders as communal, relational. We predict this incongruity to be most penalizing for analytically-talented, single professional women who are seen as gender incongruent for their masculine skills and for prioritizing their careers. Leveraging a multi-method approach, we present evidence in support of our thesis. In Study 1, a set of experiments, we observe participants evaluate single analytically-talented women as least suitable for a leadership promotion compared to identically-described single men, married men and women. Participant explanations for their negative evaluations support incongruity as the mechanism for the penalty toward single women, whom they describe as “too analytical”, lacking the people management skills needed for leadership. Study 2 adds external validity by examining early career promotions of MBA graduates, where single analytically-talented women prove the least likely to advance post-graduation compared to all other gender, marital status, and talent groupings. The combined studies unveil a novel penalty directed at young, single, analytically-talented women professionals in their early careers for their perceived incongruity with gendered expectations of masculine and feminine leadership.
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Kelmendi K, Jemini-Gashi L. An Exploratory Study of Gender Role Stress and Psychological Distress of Women in Kosovo. WOMEN'S HEALTH (LONDON, ENGLAND) 2022; 18:17455057221097823. [PMID: 35614864 PMCID: PMC9149625 DOI: 10.1177/17455057221097823] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2021] [Revised: 04/07/2022] [Accepted: 04/13/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Although investigations of changing gender roles have been performed globally, most studies have been conducted in high-income countries, and studies from emerging and developing countries are lacking. This study aims to examine the factor structure of the feminine gender role stress scale among women (FGRS) and explore its relationship with psychological distress (PD). METHODS A cross-sectional study was carried out with 656 women from Kosovo using a convenience sampling technique during October 2017 and March 2018. The data were collected through face-to-face interviews and analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences version 21 and Mplus 7.3. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and path analysis were used to understand the goodness-of-fit of the FGRS scale in the Kosovo context and explore the relationship between the FGRS scale and PD when treated as latent variables. Multivariance analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to understand the differences between groups of women based on employment and FGRS. Multinomial logistic regression was used to assess the prediction of different domains of FGRS for PD separately for each category while controlling for age. RESULTS After demonstrating that the five-factor model of the FGRS showed a good fit to the data in this sample of Kosovo women, analyses revealed that the FGRS domains (fear of victimization and behaving with assertiveness) were positively associated with psychological distress. CONCLUSION The findings validate the usefulness of the FGRS scale in a sample of Kosovar women. The intersectionality perspective was used to interpret the importance of multiple layers of vulnerabilities and their coexistence, including education, socioeconomic status, and their implications for health inequalities.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Liridona Jemini-Gashi
- Liridona Jemini-Gashi, Department of
Psychology, Faculty of Philosophy, University of Prishtina “Hasan Prishtina,”
Nena Tereza Street nn, 10000 Pristina, Kosovo, Albania.
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23
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Understanding Perceptions of Radical and Liberal Feminists: The Nuanced Roles of Warmth and Competence. SEX ROLES 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s11199-021-01257-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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24
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Morgenroth T, Ryan MK. The Effects of Gender Trouble: An Integrative Theoretical Framework of the Perpetuation and Disruption of the Gender/Sex Binary. PERSPECTIVES ON PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 2021; 16:1113-1142. [PMID: 32375012 PMCID: PMC8564221 DOI: 10.1177/1745691620902442] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
In the Western world, gender has traditionally been viewed as binary and as following directly from biological sex. This view is slowly changing among both experts and the general public, a change that has been met with strong opposition. In this article, we explore the psychological processes underlying these dynamics. Drawing on previous work on gender performativity as well as gender as a performance, we develop a psychological framework of the perpetuation and disruption of the gender/sex binary on a stage that facilitates and foregrounds binary gender/sex performance. Whenever character, costume, and script are not aligned the gender/sex binary is disrupted and gender trouble ensues. We integrate various strands of the psychological literature into this framework and explain the processes underlying these reactions. We propose that gender trouble can elicit threat-personal threat, group-based and identity threat, and system threat-which in turn leads to efforts to alleviate this threat through the reinforcement of the gender/sex binary. Our framework challenges the way psychologists have traditionally treated gender/sex in theory and empirical work and proposes new avenues and implications for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Michelle K. Ryan
- Department of Psychology,
University of Exeter
- Faculty of Economics and Business,
University of Groningen
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25
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26
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Kántás ÉM, Faragó L, Kovacs M. If you can dream it, you can do it!—The role of sexual orientation in preferences toward boys' and girls' career orientation and gendered behaviour. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/ejsp.2789] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Éva Magdolna Kántás
- Doctoral School of Psychology ELTE Eötvös Loránd University Budapest Hungary
- Institute of Psychology ELTE Eötvös Loránd University Budapest Hungary
| | - Laura Faragó
- Department of Social and Organizational Psychology Pázmány Péter Catholic University Budapest Hungary
| | - Monika Kovacs
- Institute of Intercultural Psychology and Education ELTE Eötvös Loránd University Budapest Hungary
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Le Floch V, Brunel M, Py J, Herman G, Pansu P. Backlash Effect on Highly Skilled North African Males Seeking Professional Advancement in France. JOURNAL OF PERSONNEL PSYCHOLOGY 2021. [DOI: 10.1027/1866-5888/a000291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Abstract. This study was carried out within the context of an assessment for promotion to a high-status position. It aimed to determine the conditions in which the backlash effect occurs in a group characterized by negative stereotypes owing to their ethnicity: North African males in France. One hundred twenty-eight recruitment professionals assessed the probability of promoting one of eight fictitious male applicants with different causal attributions (internal or external) and levels of technical competence (high or average), and of different ethnicities (European or North African). Internal attribution, one of the dimensions of self-promotion, was regarded as a counterstereotypical behavior for a North African applicant compared with a European applicant. Backlash was only observed in a high-threat context.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Jacques Py
- CLLE, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, Toulouse, France
| | - Ginette Herman
- Faculty of Psychology & Education Sciences, Catholic University of Leuven, Louvain-La-Neuve, Belgium
| | - Pascal Pansu
- LaRAC, Université Grenoble Alpes, Grenoble, France
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28
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Allen J, Grembowski M, Mallett RK, Gervais SJ. Exploring the bidirectional connection between belonging and women’s self-sexualization. SELF AND IDENTITY 2021. [DOI: 10.1080/15298868.2020.1831588] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jill Allen
- Department of Psychology & Neuroscience, Drake University, Des Moines, IA, USA
| | | | - Robyn K. Mallett
- Department of Psychology, Loyola University Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Sarah J. Gervais
- Department of Psychology, University of Nebraska – Lincoln, Lincoln, NE, USA
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29
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Gervais SJ, Baildon AE, Lorenz TK. On Methods and Marshmallows: A Roadmap for Science That Is Openly Feminist and Radically Open. PSYCHOLOGY OF WOMEN QUARTERLY 2021. [DOI: 10.1177/03616843211032632] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
In this commentary, we argue that feminist science and open science can benefit from each other’s wisdom and critiques in service of creating systems that produce the highest quality science with the maximum potential for improving the lives of women. To do this, we offer a constructive analysis, focusing on common methods used in open science, including open materials and data, preregistration, and large sample sizes, and illuminate potential benefits and costs from a feminist science perspective. We also offer some solutions and deeper questions both for individual researchers and the feminist psychology and open science communities. By broadening our focus from a myopic prioritization of certain methodological and analytic approaches in open science, we hope to give a balanced perspective of science that emerges from each movement’s strengths and is openly feminist and radically open.
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Sanzari CM, Dennis A, Moss‐Racusin CA. Should I stay or should I go?: Penalties for briefly de‐prioritizing work or childcare. JOURNAL OF APPLIED SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2021. [DOI: 10.1111/jasp.12738] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Alexandra Dennis
- Department of Psychology Skidmore College Saratoga Springs NY USA
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31
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Wen F, Zuo B, Wang Y, Wu Y, Fang Z, Ma S. The (Continuous) Nature of Perceived Gender Counter-Stereotype: A Threshold Model of Gender Stereotype Maintenance. ARCHIVES OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR 2020; 49:2511-2530. [PMID: 32588256 DOI: 10.1007/s10508-020-01763-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2018] [Revised: 06/02/2020] [Accepted: 06/05/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
People often expect men and women to look, act, and think like typical members of their gender groups. When men and women deviate from gender-stereotypical expectations across various domains, people tend to denigrate them, compared to those who follow stereotypical expectations. This derogatory attitude-termed the backlash effect-has been well supported by psychological research. However, previous studies on the backlash effect have often neglected the fact that men and women can be counter-stereotypical of their gender groups, to varying degrees. This research tried to address this continuous nature of counter-stereotypical characteristics in various domains using six experiments to evaluate individual responses to gendered facial cues, behaviors, and psychological traits. We conducted three studies, with two experiments per study. Most importantly, this research proposed a threshold model of gender stereotype maintenance to explain people's evaluations of gender-counter-stereotypical targets across various domains. The threshold model suggested that appraisal for a target with balanced gender-stereotypical and gender-counter-stereotypical characteristics tends to be more positive than for a target who strictly adheres to gender stereotypes or gender-counter-stereotypical characteristics. The results of all three studies supported the threshold model, which demonstrated a curvilinear pattern of participants' appraisals and targets' gender-counter-stereotypical degrees. The threshold model of stereotype maintenance has enriched the traditional stereotype maintenance theory and enlightened the development of a more effective impression management strategy. Moreover, it provided more ecological validity that treated gender counter-stereotype as a continuum rather than a binary variable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fangfang Wen
- School of Psychology, Center for Studies of Social Psychology, Central China Normal University, Wuhan, 430079, China
| | - Bin Zuo
- School of Psychology, Center for Studies of Social Psychology, Central China Normal University, Wuhan, 430079, China.
| | - Yang Wang
- School of Psychology, Center for Studies of Social Psychology, Central China Normal University, Wuhan, 430079, China
| | - Yang Wu
- Academy of Marxism, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Zeming Fang
- Department of Psychology, New York University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Shuhan Ma
- School of Psychology, Center for Studies of Social Psychology, Central China Normal University, Wuhan, 430079, China
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32
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Gedro J, Allain NM, De-Souza D, Dodson L, Mawn MV. Flattening the learning curve of leadership development: reflections of five women higher education leaders during the Coronavirus pandemic of 2020. HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT INTERNATIONAL 2020. [DOI: 10.1080/13678868.2020.1779911] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Julie Gedro
- School of Business, Empire State College/ State University of New York
| | - Nicola Marae Allain
- School of Arts and Humanities, Empire State College/ State University of New York
| | - Desalyn De-Souza
- School of Human Services, Empire State College/ State University of New York
| | - Lynne Dodson
- Harry Van Arsdale Jr. School of Labor Studies, Empire State College/ State University of New York
| | - Mary V. Mawn
- School of Science, Math and Technology, Empire State College/State University of New York
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33
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Hebl M, Cheng SK, Ng LC. Modern Discrimination in Organizations. ANNUAL REVIEW OF ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY AND ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR 2020. [DOI: 10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-012119-044948] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
This review describes the history, current state, and future of modern discrimination in organizations. First, we review development of discrimination from the early 1900s to the present day, specifically discussing various stigmatized identities, including gender, race, sexual orientation, religion, disability, weight, and age. Next, we describe both individual-level (e.g., identity management, allyship) and organization-level (e.g., training, norm setting) strategies for reducing and reacting to discrimination. Finally, we describe future research directions in the relationship between subtle and overt discrimination, intersectionality, the impact of social media, and cross-cultural considerations—areas that we suggest would help us gain a more comprehensive understanding of modern discrimination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mikki Hebl
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Rice University, Houston, Texas 77005, USA
| | - Shannon K. Cheng
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Rice University, Houston, Texas 77005, USA
| | - Linnea C. Ng
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Rice University, Houston, Texas 77005, USA
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34
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Men surgeons’ perceptions of women surgeons: is there a bias against women in surgery? Surg Endosc 2020; 34:5122-5131. [DOI: 10.1007/s00464-019-07294-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2019] [Accepted: 11/28/2019] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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35
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Bareket O, Shnabel N. Domination and Objectification: Men’s Motivation for Dominance Over Women Affects Their Tendency to Sexually Objectify Women. PSYCHOLOGY OF WOMEN QUARTERLY 2019. [DOI: 10.1177/0361684319871913] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
In the present research, we examined the association between heterosexual men’s motivation for dominance over women and their sexual objectification of women. We found that men’s social dominance orientation (SDO) correlated with their tendency to sexually objectify women (Study 1). Inducing threat to men’s dominance over women by assigning men to work under the supervision of women bosses—versus jointly with women partners (Study 2a) or under men bosses (Study 3)—led to increased sexual objectification of women among high-SDO participants. These results persisted when controlling for mood. Examining the corresponding effects among heterosexual women revealed that the correlation between SDO and the sexual objectification of men was non-significant (Study 1) and that working under men bosses did not affect women’s sexual objectification of men (Study 2b). These findings support feminist theorizing that men (re)assert their dominance over women by sexually objectifying them. Increased awareness of the motivations underlying women’s sexual objectification can help professionals plan useful interventions to reduce this phenomenon, hopefully limiting its negative effects on women’s well-being.
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Affiliation(s)
- Orly Bareket
- The School of Psychological Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Nurit Shnabel
- The School of Psychological Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
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36
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Foster-Hanson E, Rhodes M. Normative Social Role Concepts in Early Childhood. Cogn Sci 2019; 43:e12782. [PMID: 31446654 PMCID: PMC6771928 DOI: 10.1111/cogs.12782] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2019] [Revised: 06/05/2019] [Accepted: 07/09/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The current studies (N = 255, children ages 4-5 and adults) explore patterns of age-related continuity and change in conceptual representations of social role categories (e.g., "scientist"). In Study 1, young children's judgments of category membership were shaped by both category labels and category-normative traits, and the two were dissociable, indicating that even young children's conceptual representations for some social categories have a "dual character." In Study 2, when labels and traits were contrasted, adults and children based their category-based induction decisions on category-normative traits rather than labels. Study 3 confirmed that children reason based on category-normative traits because they view them as an obligatory part of category membership. In contrast, adults in this study viewed the category-normative traits as informative on their own (not only as a cue to obligations). Implications for continuity and change in representations of social role categories will be discussed.
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Manzi F. Are the Processes Underlying Discrimination the Same for Women and Men? A Critical Review of Congruity Models of Gender Discrimination. Front Psychol 2019; 10:469. [PMID: 30894831 PMCID: PMC6414465 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00469] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2018] [Accepted: 02/18/2019] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Although classic congruity models of gender discrimination (e.g., role congruity theory, lack of fit) predict negative outcomes for both women and men in gender-incongruent domains, the literature has focused almost exclusively on discrimination against women. A number of recent studies have begun to address the question of whether and under what circumstances men can also be the targets of gender discrimination. However, the results of these studies have so far been mixed. Therefore, the question of whether men, like women, also suffer discrimination when in gender incongruent roles and domains remains unclear. The goal of the present paper is to integrate and critically examine the burgeoning literature on gender discrimination against men in order to assess whether the symmetrical predictions of congruity models are supported. Through this close analysis and integration of the literature, I aim to identify remaining gaps in the research on gender discrimination. In particular, I propose that researchers of gender discrimination would benefit from expanding their scope beyond that of paid work.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca Manzi
- Department of Psychology, New York University, New York, NY, United States
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38
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Hoover AE, Hack T, Garcia AL, Goodfriend W, Habashi MM. Powerless Men and Agentic Women: Gender Bias in Hiring Decisions. SEX ROLES 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s11199-018-0964-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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39
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Toosi NR, Mor S, Semnani-Azad Z, Phillips KW, Amanatullah ET. Who Can Lean In? The Intersecting Role of Race and Gender in Negotiations. PSYCHOLOGY OF WOMEN QUARTERLY 2018. [DOI: 10.1177/0361684318800492] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Research on gender disparities in negotiation often does not address the intersectional influence of other demographic categories. We tested the hypothesis that race intersects with gender to play a role in constraining assertive behavior in negotiations. In two studies, we examined White non-Latinx and Asian/Asian American women and men’s phrasing of requests for higher salaries (Study 1) and the amounts they requested (Study 2) in hypothetical salary negotiation scenarios. White women reported less confidence and less assertiveness in their salary requests and proposed lower first offers than did White men; Asian and Asian American participants did not show gender differences in these measures. Negotiation backlash, measured by the amount that participants felt they could request without being punished for being too demanding, mediated the relation between demographic factors and first offers. We explored outcomes in light of intersectionality theories and the status incongruity hypothesis of backlash. These results indicate that differences in negotiation are shaped not only by gender but also by racial category membership.
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Affiliation(s)
- Negin R. Toosi
- Department of Psychology, California State University, East Bay, Hayward, CA, USA
| | - Shira Mor
- Faculty of Business Administration, Ono Academic College, Kiryat Ono, Israel
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Morgenroth T, Ryan MK. Gender Trouble in Social Psychology: How Can Butler's Work Inform Experimental Social Psychologists' Conceptualization of Gender? Front Psychol 2018; 9:1320. [PMID: 30100895 PMCID: PMC6072877 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2018] [Accepted: 07/09/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
A quarter of a century ago, philosopher Judith Butler (1990) called upon society to create "gender trouble" by disrupting the binary view of sex, gender, and sexuality. She argued that gender, rather than being an essential quality following from biological sex, or an inherent identity, is an act which grows out of, reinforces, and is reinforced by, societal norms and creates the illusion of binary sex. Despite the fact that Butler's philosophical approach to understanding gender has many resonances with a large body of gender research being conducted by social psychologists, little theorizing and research within experimental social psychology has drawn directly on Butler's ideas. In this paper, we will discuss how Butler's ideas can add to experimental social psychologists' understanding of gender. We describe the Butler's ideas from Gender Trouble and discuss the ways in which they fit with current conceptualizations of gender in experimental social psychology. We then propose a series of new research questions that arise from this integration of Butler's work and the social psychological literature. Finally, we suggest a number of concrete ways in which experimental social psychologists can incorporate notions of gender performativity and gender trouble into the ways in which they research gender.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thekla Morgenroth
- Department of Psychology, University of Exeter, Exeter, United Kingdom
| | - Michelle K. Ryan
- Department of Psychology, University of Exeter, Exeter, United Kingdom
- Faculty of Economics and Business, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
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Columb C, Plant EA. A little bird told me…: Consequences of holding an implicit association between women and birds. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/ejsp.2517] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Corey Columb
- Prairie View A&M University Prairie View Texas USA
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Sullivan J, Moss-Racusin C, Lopez M, Williams K. Backlash against gender stereotype-violating preschool children. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0195503. [PMID: 29630651 PMCID: PMC5890994 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0195503] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2017] [Accepted: 03/23/2018] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
While there is substantial evidence that adults who violate gender stereotypes often face backlash (i.e. social and economic penalties), less is known about the nature of gender stereotypes for young children, and the penalties that children may face for violating them. We conducted three experiments, with over 2000 adults from the US, to better understand the content and consequences of adults' gender stereotypes for young children. In Experiment 1, we tested which characteristics adults (N = 635) believed to be descriptive (i.e. typical), prescriptive (i.e. required), and proscriptive (i.e. forbidden) for preschool-aged boys and girls. Using the characteristics that were rated in Experiment 1, we then constructed vignettes that were either 'masculine' or 'feminine', and manipulated whether the vignettes were said to describe a boy or a girl. Experiment 2 (N = 697) revealed that adults rated stereotype-violating children as less likeable than their stereotype-conforming peers, and that this difference was more robust for boys than girls. Experiment 3 (N = 731) was a direct replication of Experiment 2, and revealed converging evidence of backlash against stereotype-violating children. In sum, our results suggest that even young children encounter backlash from adults for stereotype violations, and that these effects may be strongest for boys.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Sullivan
- Department of Psychology, Skidmore College, Saratoga Springs, United States of America
| | - Corinne Moss-Racusin
- Department of Psychology, Skidmore College, Saratoga Springs, United States of America
| | - Michael Lopez
- Department of Mathematics, Skidmore College, Saratoga Springs, United States of America
| | - Katherine Williams
- Department of Psychology, Skidmore College, Saratoga Springs, United States of America
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Ratliff KA, Redford L, Conway J, Smith CT. Engendering support: Hostile sexism predicts voting for Donald Trump over Hillary Clinton in the 2016 U.S. presidential election. GROUP PROCESSES & INTERGROUP RELATIONS 2017. [DOI: 10.1177/1368430217741203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
This research investigated the role of gender attitudes in the United States 2016 presidential election between Hillary Clinton and Donald Trump. The results of three studies (combined N = 2,816) showed that, as expected, Trump voters were higher in hostile and benevolent sexism than were Clinton voters. Even after controlling for political ideology and gender (Studies 1, 2, and 3) and minority group attitudes (Study 3), greater hostile sexism predicted more positive attitudes toward Trump, less positive attitudes toward Clinton, and retrospective reports of having voted for Trump over Clinton (Studies 2 and 3). Benevolent sexism did not predict additional variation in voting behavior beyond political ideology and hostile sexism. These results suggest that political behavior is based on more than political ideology; even among those with otherwise progressive views, overtly antagonistic views of women could be a liability to women—and an asset to men—running for office.
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Schubert L, Körner A, Lindau B, Strack F, Topolinski S. Open-Minded Midwifes, Literate Butchers, and Greedy Hooligans-The Independent Contributions of Stereotype Valence and Consistency on Evaluative Judgments. Front Psychol 2017; 8:1723. [PMID: 29062289 PMCID: PMC5640976 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01723] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2017] [Accepted: 09/19/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Do people evaluate an open-minded midwife less positively than a caring midwife? Both open-minded and caring are generally seen as positive attributes. However, consistency varies-the attribute caring is consistent with the midwife stereotype while open-minded is not. In general, both stimulus valence and consistency can influence evaluations. Six experiments investigated the respective influence of valence and consistency on evaluative judgments in the domain of stereotyping. In an impression formation paradigm, valence and consistency of stereotypic information about target persons were manipulated orthogonally and spontaneous evaluations of these target persons were measured. Valence reliably influenced evaluations. However, for strongly valenced stereotypes, no effect of consistency was observed. Parameters possibly preventing the occurrence of consistency effects were ruled out, specifically, valence of inconsistent attributes, processing priority of category information, and impression formation instructions. However, consistency had subtle effects on evaluative judgments if the information about a target person was not strongly valenced and experimental conditions were optimal. Concluding, in principle, both stereotype valence and consistency can play a role in evaluative judgments of stereotypic target persons. However, the more subtle influence of consistency does not seem to substantially influence evaluations of stereotyped target persons. Implications for fluency research and stereotype disconfirmation are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa Schubert
- Institute of Psychology, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Anita Körner
- Institute of Psychology, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Berit Lindau
- Social Cognition Center Cologne, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Fritz Strack
- Institute of Psychology, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Sascha Topolinski
- Social Cognition Center Cologne, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
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45
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Merluzzi J. Gender and Negative Network Ties: Exploring Difficult Work Relationships Within and Across Gender. ORGANIZATION SCIENCE 2017. [DOI: 10.1287/orsc.2017.1137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer Merluzzi
- George Washington University, Washington, District of Columbia 20052
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46
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Abstract
The authors of sexual economics theory (Baumeister & Twenge, 2002; Baumeister & Vohs, 2004) argue that sex is a female commodity that women exchange for men’s resources; therefore, women (not men) are responsible for the cultural suppression of sexuality, ostensibly to preserve the value of sex. In this article, I describe the central tenets of sexual economics theory and summarize a growing body of research contradicting them. I also explain the negative implications of the claims of sexual economics theory for gender equality and heterosexual relationships. Researchers, clinicians, and educators engaged in understanding human sexuality may use the arguments provided in this article to counteract gender myths. This article also serves as a case study of how feminist scholars can employ empirical evidence to weaken a popularized, patriarchal theory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurie A. Rudman
- Department of Psychology, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ, USA
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47
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Van Berkel L, Molina LE, Mukherjee S. Gender Asymmetry in the Construction of American National Identity. PSYCHOLOGY OF WOMEN QUARTERLY 2017. [DOI: 10.1177/0361684317707710] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Dominant groups (e.g., White U.S. citizens) are more associated with “American” identity and they feel greater ownership over American national identity compared to ethnic minority groups. We extended this perception to gender and tested whether American national identity is constructed in masculine, versus feminine, terms. We examined whether U.S. men feel greater symbolic ownership over the nation and represent what it means to be a prototypical American, more than U.S. women. In Study 1, men and women considered male-associated traits more American than female-associated traits and listed more men as examples of “true” Americans than women. In Study 2, men reported higher levels of nationalism than women. Women’s nationalism was moderated by their conception of male-associated traits as American—women who viewed American identity as more masculine were less nationalistic. Men showed a stronger correlation between gender identity and American identity compared to women. However, correlations between gender identity and nationalism did not differ by participant gender. Results suggest men and masculinity are considered more American than are women and femininity. We provide support for the subgroup asymmetry hypothesis through the novel lens of gender. We discuss means of attenuating the gendered construction of national identity in terms of media, policy, and education. Additional online materials for this article, including study materials, a podcast interview with the author, and slides for instructors who want to use this article for teaching, are available on PWQ’ s website at http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/suppl/10.1177/0361684317707710
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Van Berkel
- Social Cognition Center Cologne, University of Cologne, Köln, Germany
| | - Ludwin E. Molina
- Department of Psychology, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, USA
| | - Sahana Mukherjee
- Department of Psychology, Gettysburg College, Gettysburg, PA, USA
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Bear JB, Glick P. Breadwinner Bonus and Caregiver Penalty in Workplace Rewards for Men and Women. SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGICAL AND PERSONALITY SCIENCE 2016. [DOI: 10.1177/1948550616683016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Two studies examine whether the workplace motherhood penalty and fatherhood bonus are better conceived, respectively, as a caregiver penalty and breadwinner bonus. Participants acting as employers structured offers for married female or male job candidates with children. In Study 1, participants assumed “mother = caregiver” and “father = breadwinner.” These assumptions moderated significantly higher salary offers to fathers and more (explicitly career-dampening) flexible schedules to mothers. Study 2 manipulated family roles (nonparent, parent-unspecified role, parent-breadwinner, and parent-caregiver). Supporting a breadwinner bonus, the female candidate fared best in salary and leadership training offers when labeled a breadwinner (vs. caregiver and unspecified role), equaling a male breadwinner’s offer. A caregiver penalty decreased salary for caregivers of both sexes and leadership training for women (compared to breadwinners) but not men. Thus, the motherhood penalty can become a breadwinner bonus if mothers present themselves as family breadwinners.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia B. Bear
- College of Business, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, USA
| | - Peter Glick
- Department of Psychology, Lawrence University, Appleton, WI, USA
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Roberts SO, Gelman SA, Ho AK. So It Is, So It Shall Be: Group Regularities License Children's Prescriptive Judgments. Cogn Sci 2016; 41 Suppl 3:576-600. [PMID: 27914116 DOI: 10.1111/cogs.12443] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2015] [Revised: 06/26/2016] [Accepted: 07/14/2016] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
When do descriptive regularities (what characteristics individuals have) become prescriptive norms (what characteristics individuals should have)? We examined children's (4-13 years) and adults' use of group regularities to make prescriptive judgments, employing novel groups (Hibbles and Glerks) that engaged in morally neutral behaviors (e.g., eating different kinds of berries). Participants were introduced to conforming or non-conforming individuals (e.g., a Hibble who ate berries more typical of a Glerk). Children negatively evaluated non-conformity, with negative evaluations declining with age (Study 1). These effects were replicable across competitive and cooperative intergroup contexts (Study 2) and stemmed from reasoning about group regularities rather than reasoning about individual regularities (Study 3). These data provide new insights into children's group concepts and have important implications for understanding the development of stereotyping and norm enforcement.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Arnold K Ho
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan
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50
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Vial AC, Napier JL, Brescoll VL. A bed of thorns: Female leaders and the self-reinforcing cycle of illegitimacy. LEADERSHIP QUARTERLY 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.leaqua.2015.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 149] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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